Globalization and disease
Globalization, the flow of information, goods, capital, and people across political and geographic boundaries, allows infectious diseases to rapidly spread around the world, while also allowing the alleviation of factors such as hunger and poverty, which are key determinants of global health.[1] The spread of diseases across wide geographic scales has increased through history. Early diseases that spread from Asia to Europe were bubonic plague, influenza of various types, and similar infectious diseases.
In the current era of globalization, the world is more interdependent than at any other time. Efficient and inexpensive transportation has left few places inaccessible, and increased global trade in agricultural products has brought more and more people into contact with animal diseases that have subsequently jumped species barriers (see zoonosis).[2]
Globalization intensified during the
Travel patterns and globalization
The
In addition to trading in goods, many nations began to trade in
During this time
In Europe during the age of exploration, diseases such as
It was not until the 1800s that humans began to recognize the existence and role of germs and
Effects of globalization on disease in the modern world
Modern modes of
As medicine has progressed, many vaccines and cures have been developed for some of the worst diseases (plague, syphilis, typhus, cholera, malaria) that people develop. But, because the
Evolution of disease presents a major threat in modern times. For example, the current "swine flu" or
Globalization has increased the spread of infectious diseases from South to North, but also the risk of non-communicable diseases by transmission of culture and behavior from North to South. It is important to target and reduce the spread of infectious diseases in developing countries. However, addressing the risk factors of non-communicable diseases and lifestyle risks in the South that cause disease, such as use or consumption of tobacco, alcohol, and unhealthy foods, is important as well.[12]
Even during pandemics, it is vital to recognize economic globalization in being a catalyst in the spread of the coronavirus. Economic factors are especially damaged by increased global lockdown regulations and trade blockades. As transportation globalized, economies expanded. Internalized economies saw great financial opportunities in global trade.[13] With increased interconnectivity among economies and the globalization of the world economy, the spread of the coronavirus maximized the potentiality of global recessions. The coronavirus pandemic caused many economic disruptions, which caused a functional disconnect in the supply chain and the flow of goods. As transportation modes are relevant to the spread of infectious diseases, it is important to also recognize the economy being the motor of this globalized transmission system.[13]
Specific diseases
Plague
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2019) |
The first recorded outbreak of plague occurred in
Within Europe, the plague struck port cities first, then followed people along both sea and land trade routes. It raged through
The third plague pandemic emerged in Yunnan province of China in the mid-nineteenth century. It spread east and south through China, reaching Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong in 1894, where it entered the global maritime trade routes. Plague reached Singapore and Bombay in 1896. China lost an estimated 2 million people between plague's reappearance in the mid-nineteenth century and its retreat in the mid-twentieth. In India, between 1896 and the 1920s, plague claimed an estimated 12 million lives, most in the Bombay province. Plague spread into the countries around the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. From China it also spread eastward to Japan, the Philippines and Hawaii, and in Central Asia it spread overland into the Russian territories from Siberia to Turkistan. By 1901 there had been outbreaks of plague on every continent, and new plague reservoirs would produce regular outbreaks over the ensuing decades.[14][15]
Measles
Measles is a highly contagious airborne virus spread by contact with infected oral and nasal fluids. When a person with measles coughs or sneezes, they release microscopic particles into the air. During the 4- to 12-day incubation period, an infected individual shows no symptoms, but as the disease progresses, the following symptoms appear: runny nose, cough, red eyes, extremely high fever and a rash.
Measles is an
Historically, measles was very prevalent throughout the world, as it is highly contagious. According to the National Immunization Program, 90% of people were infected with measles by age 15, acquiring immunity to further outbreaks. Until a vaccine was developed in 1963, measles was considered to be deadlier than smallpox.
Typhus
The first outbreak of typhus was recorded in 1489. Historians believe that troops from the
Syphilis
The origins of syphilis are unknown, and some historians argue that it descended from a twenty-thousand-year-old African zoonosis. Other historians place its emergence in the New World, arguing that the crews of Columbus's ships first brought the disease to Europe.[3] The first recorded case of syphilis occurred in Naples in 1495, after King Charles VIII of France besieged the city of Naples, Italy. The soldiers, and the prostitutes who followed their camps, came from all corners of Europe. When they went home, they took the disease with them and spread it across the continent.[3]
Smallpox
It is believed that smallpox first emerged over 3000 years ago, probably in India or Egypt. There have been numerous recorded devastating epidemics throughout the world, with high losses of life.
Smallpox was a common disease in Eurasia in the 15th century, and was spread by
During the 16th century, Spanish soldiers introduced smallpox by contact with natives of the
In 1617, smallpox reached
The
Leprosy
Leprosy originated in
Once detected, leprosy can be cured using multi-drug therapy, composed of two or three antibiotics, depending on the type of leprosy. In 1991 the World Health Assembly began an attempt to eliminate leprosy. By 2005 116 of 122 countries were reported to be free of leprosy.[21]
Malaria
On Nov. 6, 1880
Malaria was common in parts of the world where it has now disappeared, as the vast majority of Europe (disease of African descent are particularly diffused in the Empire romain) and North America . In some parts of England, mortality due to malaria was comparable to that of sub-Saharan Africa today. Although William Shakespeare was born at the beginning of a colder period called the "Little Ice Age", he knew enough ravages of this disease to include in eight parts. Plasmodium vivax lasted until 1958 in the polders of Belgium and the Netherlands. In the 1500s, it was the European settlers and their slaves who probably brought malaria on the American continent (we know that Columbus had this disease before his arrival in the new land). The Spanish
Parts of
Tuberculosis
The
Tuberculosis (TB) has been one of history's greatest killers, taking the lives of over 3 million people annually. It has been called the "white plague". According to the WHO, approximately fifty percent of people infected with TB today live in
HIV/AIDS
Despite efforts in numerous countries, awareness and prevention programs have not been effective enough to reduce the numbers of new HIV cases in many parts of the world, where it is associated with high mobility of men, poverty and sexual mores among certain populations. Uganda has had an effective program, however. Even in countries where the epidemic has a very high impact, such as Eswatini and South Africa, a large proportion of the population do not believe they are at risk of becoming infected. Even in countries such as the UK, there is no significant decline in certain at-risk communities. 2014 saw the greatest number of new diagnoses in gay men, the equivalent of nine being diagnosed a day.[29]
Initially, HIV prevention methods focused primarily on preventing the sexual transmission of HIV through behaviour change. The ABC Approach - "Abstinence, Be faithful, Use a Condom". However, by the mid-2000s, it became evident that effective HIV prevention requires more than that and that interventions need to take into account underlying socio-cultural, economic, political, legal and other contextual factors.[30]
Ebola
The
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis, also known as the "rat fever" or "field fever" is an infection caused by Leptospira. Symptoms can range from none to mild such as headaches, muscle pains, and fevers; to severe with bleeding from the lungs or meningitis. Leptospira is transmitted by both wild and domestic animals, most commonly by rodents. It is often transmitted by animal urine or by water or soil containing animal urine coming into contact with breaks in the skin, eyes, mouth, or nose.[32] The countries with the highest reported incidence are located in the Asia-Pacific region (Seychelles, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand) with incidence rates over 10 per 1000,000 people s well as in Latin America and the Caribbean (Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Jamaica, El Salvador, Uruguay, Cuba, Nicaragua and Costa Rica)[33] However, the rise in global travel and eco-tourism [34] has led to dramatic changes in the epidemiology of leptospirosis, and travelers from around the world have become exposed to the threat of leptospirosis. Despite decreasing prevalence of leptospirosis in endemic regions, previously non-endemic countries are now reporting increasing numbers of cases due to recreational exposure [35] International travelers engaged in adventure sports are directly exposed to numerous infectious agents in the environment and now comprise a growing proportion of cases worldwide.[36]
Disease X
The World Health Organization (WHO) proposed the name Disease X in 2018 to focus on preparations and predictions of a major pandemic.[37]
COVID-19
The virus outbreak originated in Wuhan, China.
As of May 2020, scientists believe that COVID-19, a zoonotic disease, is linked to the wet markets in China.[41] Epidemiologists have also warned of the virus's contagiousness. Specialists have declared that the spread of SARS-CoV-2 is still unknown. The generally accepted notion among virologists and experts is that the action of inhaling droplets from an infected person is most likely the way SARS-CoV-2 is spreading.[42] As more people travel and more goods and capital are traded globally, COVID-19 cases started to slowly appear all over the world.[citation needed]
Some of the symptoms that COVID-19 patients could experience is shortness of breath (which might be a sign of pneumonia), cough, fever, and diarrhea.[43] The three most recorded and common symptoms are fever, tiredness, and coughing, as reported by the World Health Organization.[43] COVID-19 is also categorized among the viruses that can show no symptoms in the carrier. Asymptomatic COVID-19 carriers transmitted the virus to many people which eventually did show symptoms, some being deadly.[43]
The first number of cases was detected in Wuhan, China, the origin of the outbreak.[44] On December 31, 2019, Wuhan Municipal Health Commission announced to the World Health Organization that the number of pneumonia cases that have been previously detected in Wuhan, Hubei Province is now under investigation.[44] Proper identification of a novel coronavirus was developed and reported, making the pneumonia cases in China the first reported cases of COVID-19.[44] As of November 25, 2021, there have been around 260 million confirmed COVID-19 cases around the world.[45] Confirmed deaths as a result of COVID-19 is over 5 million globally.[45] Over 235 million of the 260 million confirmed COVID-19 cases have successfully recovered.[45] Countries showing lack of preparation and awareness in January and February 2020 are now reporting the highest numbers of COVID-19 cases. The United States leads the worldwide count with almost 49 million confirmed cases.[45] Deaths in The United States have crossed 798,000, maintaining the highest death count of any country.[45] Brazil, Russia, Spain, UK, and Italy have all suffered because of the increase in cases, leading to an impaired health system unable to attend to so many sick people at one time.[citation needed]
The first-ever confirmed case of COVID-19 in the United States was in Washington State on January 21, 2020.[46] It was a man who had just returned from China. Following this incident, on January 31, 2020, Trump announced that travel to and from China is restricted, effective on February 2, 2020.[46] On March 11, 2020, Trump issues executive order to restrict travel from Europe, except for the UK and Ireland.[46] On May 24, 2020, Trump bans travel from Brazil, as Brazil becomes the new center of the coronavirus pandemic.[46] International restrictions were set to decrease international entities of entering a country, potentially carrying the virus. This is because governments understand that with the accessibility in travel and free trade, any person can travel and carry the virus to a new environment. Recommendations to U.S. travelers have been set by the State Department. As of March 19, 2020, some countries have been marked Level 4 "do not travel".[47] The coronavirus pandemic travel restrictions have affected almost 93% of the global population.[47] Increased travel restrictions effectively aid multilateral and bilateral health organizations to control the number of confirmed cases of COVID-19.[citation needed]
Non-communicable disease
Economic globalization and disease
See also
- Chagas disease
- Eradication of infectious diseases
- Global catastrophic risk
- Infectious disease
- List of epidemics
- Pandemic
- Transmission (medicine)
- Tropical disease
- Virgin soil epidemic
- Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses
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