Glomeromycota

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Glomeromycota
Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Glomeromycota
Subdivision: Glomeromycotina
C.Walker & A.Schuessler (2001)[2]
Class: Glomeromycetes
Caval.-Sm. (1998)[1]
Orders

Glomeromycota (often referred to as glomeromycetes, as they include only one class, Glomeromycetes) are one of eight currently recognized

cyanobacteria.[5] The majority of evidence shows that the Glomeromycota are dependent on land plants (Nostoc in the case of Geosiphon) for carbon and energy, but there is recent circumstantial evidence that some species may be able to lead an independent existence.[6] The arbuscular mycorrhizal species are terrestrial and widely distributed in soils worldwide where they form symbioses with the roots of the majority of plant species (>80%). They can also be found in wetlands
, including salt-marshes, and associated with epiphytic plants.

According to multigene phylogenetic analyses, this taxon is located as a member of the phylum Mucoromycota.[7] Currently, the phylum name Glomeromycota is invalid, and the subphylum Glomeromycotina should be used to describe this taxon.[8]

Reproduction

The Glomeromycota have generally

mycelia and reproduce asexually through blastic development of the hyphal tip to produce spores[2] (Glomerospores) with diameters of 80–500 μm.[9] In some, complex spores form within a terminal saccule.[2] Recently it was shown that Glomus species contain 51 genes encoding all the tools necessary for meiosis.[10] Based on these and related findings, it was suggested that Glomus species may have a cryptic sexual cycle.[10][11][12]

Colonization

New colonization of AM fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.[13] Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some air dispersal capabilities are also known.[14] Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly correlated to spore density in the soil.[13] In addition, new data also suggests that AM fungi host plants also secrete chemical factors which attract and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.[14]

The necessary components for the colonization of Glomeromycota include, the host's fine root system, proper development of intracellular arbuscular structures, and a well-established external fungal

arbuscule which have low functional periods before degradation and absorption by host's root cells. A fully developed arbuscular mycorrhizal structure facilitates the two-way movement of nutrients between the host and mutualistic fungal partner. The symbiotic association allows the host plant to respond better to environment stresses, and the non-photosynthetic fungi to obtain carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis.[14]

Phylogeny

Initial studies of the Glomeromycota were based on the morphology of soil-borne sporocarps (spore clusters) found in or near colonized plant roots.

Endogonaceae.[17] Following broader reviews that cleared up the sporocarp confusion, the Glomeromycota were first proposed in the genera Acaulospora and Gigaspora[18] before being accorded their own order with the three families Glomaceae (now Glomeraceae), Acaulosporaceae and Gigasporaceae.[19]

With the advent of molecular techniques this classification has undergone major revision. An analysis of small subunit (SSU) rRNA sequences[20] indicated that they share a common ancestor with the Dikarya.[2] Nowadays it is accepted that Glomeromycota consists of 4 orders.[21]

Glomeromycota

Several species which produce glomoid spores (i.e. spores similar to

cyanobacterium Nostoc punctiforme[23] and produces spores typical to this division, in the Archaeosporales
.

Work in this field is incomplete, and members of Glomus may be better suited to different genera[24] or families.[9]


Molecular biology

The biochemical and genetic characterization of the Glomeromycota has been hindered by their

biotrophic nature, which impedes laboratory culturing. This obstacle was eventually surpassed with the use of root cultures and, most recently, a method which applies sequencing of single nucleus from spores has also been developed to circumvent this challenge.[25] The first mycorrhizal gene to be sequenced was the small-subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA).[26] This gene is highly conserved and commonly used in phylogenetic studies so was isolated from spores of each taxonomic group before amplification through the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).[27]
A metatranscriptomic survey of the Sevilleta Arid Lands found that 5.4% of the fungal rRNA reads mapped to Glomeromycota. This result was inconsistent with previous PCR-based studies of community structure in the region, suggesting that previous PCR-based studies may have underestimated Glomeromycota abundance due to amplification biases.[28]

See also

References

  1. PMID 9809012
    . (as "Glomomycetes")
  2. ^
    doi:10.1017/S0953756201005196
    .
  3. ^ Hibbett, D.S.; et al. (March 2007). "A higher level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi". Mycol. Res. 111 (5): 509–547.
    S2CID 4686378
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  4. ^ Schüßler, Arthur (15 August 2011). "Glomeromycota phylogeny". www.lrz-muenchen.de. Archived from the original on 2012-05-29.
  5. ^ Schüßler, Arthur (10 March 2011). "The Geosiphon pyriformis symbiosis – fungus 'eats' cyanobacterium". www.lrz-muenchen.de. Archived from the original on 2012-08-05.
  6. ^ Hempel, S.; Renker, C. & Buscot, F. (2007). "Differences in the species composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in spore, root and soil communities in a grassland ecosystem". Environmental Microbiology. 9 (8): 1930–1938.
    PMID 17635540
    .
  7. PMID 27738200
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  8. PMID 27738200
    .
  9. ^ a b Simon, L.; Bousquet, J.; Levesque, C.; Lalonde, M. (1993). "Origin and diversification of endomycorrhizal fungi and coincidence with vascular land plants".
    S2CID 4319766
    .
  10. ^
    PMID 21876220
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  11. PMID 24260466
    .
  12. PMID 22075432
    .
  13. ^ a b Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. "Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil." Mycorrhiza 23.3 (2013): 221–33. Web.
  14. ^
    ISBN 9780123705266
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  15. ^ Tulasne, L.R. & C. Tulasne (1844). "Fungi nonnulli hipogaei, novi v. minus cogniti auct". Giornale Botanico Italiano. 2: 55–63.
  16. ^ Wright, S.F. Management of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. 2005. In Roots and Soil Management: Interactions between roots and the soil. Ed. Zobel, R.W., Wright, S.F. USA: American Society of Agronomy. Pp 183–197.
  17. ^ Thaxter, R. (1922). "A revision of the Endogonaceae". Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 57 (12): 291–341.
    JSTOR 20025921
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  18. ^ J.W. Gerdemann; J.M. Trappe (1974). "The Endogonaceae in the Pacific Northwest". Mycologia Memoirs. 5: 1–76.
  19. ^ J.B. Morton; G.L. Benny (1990). "Revised classification of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Zygomycetes): a new order, Glomales, two new suborders, Glomineae and Gigasporineae, and two new families, Acaulosporaceae and Gigasporaceae, with an emendation of Glomaceae". Mycotaxon. 37: 471–491.
  20. ^ Schüßler, A.; et al. (January 2001). "Analysis of partial Glomales SSU rRNA gene sequences: implications for primer design and phylogeny". Mycol. Res. 105 (1): 5–15.
    doi:10.1017/S0953756200003725
    .
  21. ^ Redecker, D.; Schüßler, A.; Stockinger, H.; Stürmer, S. L.; Morton, J. B. & Walker, C. (2013). "An evidence-based consensus for the classification of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomeromycota)". Mycorrhiza. 23 (7): 515–531.
    S2CID 16495856
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  22. S2CID 33894668
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  23. S2CID 33054919
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  24. ^ Walker, C. (1992). "Systematics and taxonomy of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomales) – a possible way forward" (PDF). Agronomie. 12 (10): 887–897.
    doi:10.1051/agro:19921026
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  25. PMID 31992756
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  26. ^ Simon, L.; Lalonde, M.; Bruns, T.D. (1992). "Specific Amplification of 18S Fungal Ribosomal Genes from Vesicular-Arbuscular Endomycorrhizal Fungi Colonizing Roots". American Society for Microbiology. 58 (1): 291–295.
    S2CID 6480019
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  27. PMID 16592806
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  28. PMID 26279186
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External links

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