Glossary of diabetes

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The following is a glossary of diabetes which explains terms connected with diabetes.


A

diabetes mellitus
.
ARB
).
Type 2 diabetes
. See: Type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Acetohexamide
A pill taken to lower the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. People with Type 2 diabetes may take these pills. See also: Oral hypoglycemic agents. One of the sulfonylurea drugs. (Dymelor Dimelor)
Acetone
A byproduct of fat metabolism. One of three ketone body substances. Produced in high levels during periods of stress, infection, etc possibly leading to diabetic ketoacidosis, a very serious condition. It can sometimes be smelled on the breath of those in, or about to enter diabetic ketoacidosis as a fruity (nail polish remover, or lacquer thinner) sort of smell. It is very rapidly released into via the lungs into the breath, unlike the other ketone bodies. It is chemically a ketone.
Acidosis
An acidic condition in body fluids, chiefly blood. If prolonged, or severe, it can cause coma and death regardless of cause. For a person with diabetes, this can be caused by insufficient glucose absorption (e.g. from inadequate insulin) combined with metabolic ketosis. It can lead to diabetic ketoacidosis, a medical emergency.
Acute
Happens for a limited period of time; abrupt onset; sharp, severe.
Adrenal gland
An endocrine gland located on top of the human kidney. Secretes adrenaline, one of the primary 'fight or flight' stress hormones, which have substantial counterregulatory effects.
Adverse effect
A harmful result.
Albuminuria
release of the protein albumin in urine. As this protein is strongly conserved, this is evidence of abnormal kidney function.
Aldose reductase inhibitor
Alpha cell
one of the types of cell in the pancreas (in areas called the Islets of Langerhans). Alpha cells make and release a hormone called glucagon, which raises the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood.
essential amino acids
.
neuropathy
that causes muscle weakness and wasting.
Amylin
A peptide thought to be involved in beta cell loss in type 2 diabetes.
Angiopathy
A process that damages the blood vessels.
Anomalies
Abnormalities, as in birth defects, or in peculiar results or developments. For instance, diabetes can develop in an anomalous, unusual, way.
Antibodies
Chemicals produced by the immune system which are very carefully tuned to attach only to particular substances in foreign bodies (e.g., viruses, bacteria, foreign tissue, ...) When they attach to their target substances, other parts of the immune system attack and destroy the tagged protein or cell. It is an inappropriate antibody reaction to normal proteins found on beta cells that are thought to be the main mechanism of beta cell destruction in Type 1 diabetes.
Anti-diabetic drug
A kind of medication that helps a person with diabetes control the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood so that the body works as it should. See also: Insulin; oral hypoglycemic agents.
Antigen
The substance in a foreign body which evokes production of antibodies specific to it.
Antiseptic
A product that reduces the presence of infective agents.
ARB
Angiotensisn Receptor Blocker. An agent which interferes with the renin (kidney-lung-heart blood pressure control) cycle. An example is Atacand. (See ACE inhibitor
).
platelets). Broken pieces of those deposits or closure of the arterial opening can cause myocardial infarction or stroke. Precisely what causes it is not fully known, but diabetics have increased risk of both heart attack and stroke, so some of the tissue damage diabetes produces may be involved. Equivalent to atherosclerosis
.
Artery
Blood vessel with muscular walls on the 'supply side' of the blood circulation, in the network of vessels between the left ventricle output and capillary beds throughout the body.
Artificial pancreas
A large machine used in hospitals that constantly measures glucose (sugar) in the blood and, in response, releases the right amount of insulin. Scientists are also working to develop a small unit that could be implanted in the body, functioning like a real pancreas. Note that the pancreas is a complex multi-functional organ, and replacement of properly regulated insulin production would be only partial functional duplication; it is likely that an artificial pancreas in a diabetic context would not replace an entire existing organ.
Aspartame
An artificial sweetener that can replace sugar in many uses. Chemically it is two amino acids and is therefore a kind of miniature protein, a very small peptide. It is sweet because, in a way not entirely clear even now, it interacts with the taste buds to cause a sweet taste.
Asymptomatic
No symptoms; no clear sign of disease present. Most Type II diabetics are without clinically obvious symptoms for some time (often years) before they are diagnosed as diabetic.
Atherosclerosis
See: Arteriosclerosis.
Autoimmune disease
A condition in which the immune system inappropriately attacks a body tissue. Multiple sclerosis, some kinds of rheumatism, lupus, and Type 1 diabetes are examples. The reasons for the immune system misbehavior are not, in general, understood.
Autonomic neuropathy
Damage to nerves that do not control senses or muscles. These nerves control 'automatic' processes, like heart rate and body temperature. They can be damaged by diabetes, just like 'regular' somatic nerves, but the results are 'system-wide', not just pain or muscle weakness. Balance, intestinal control, blood pressure regulation, sweating, breathing rate, ... are all controlled or influenced by the autonomic nervous system.

B

Background retinopathy
Also known as non-proliferative retinopathy
Basal rate
A continuous supply of something. In the case of diabetes, the low levels of insulin usually maintained in the absence of perturbing events (e.g., food, infection, stress, ...).
Beta cell
One of the cell types found in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. They are the source of insulin, and contain mechanisms which watch blood glucose levels and which secrete (or not) insulin in response.
Beta cell transplantation
See: Islet cell transplantation.
Biosynthetic human insulin
A man-made insulin that is chemically identical to like human insulin. See also: Human insulin.
Biphasic insulin
A type of pharmaceutical insulin that is a mixture of intermediate- and fast-acting insulin.
Blood glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar and the primary fuel for body cells. It is absorbed from some foods (or produced from starchy ones), absorbed into the cells (for about 2/3 of cells, this is under control of insulin), stored temporarily in the liver as glycogen, made in starvation from the glycerin backbone of triglycerides, and from a few amino acids. Glucose metabolism anomalies are the cause of diabetes mellitus.
Blood glucose meter
A machine which electrochemically or coloristically, determines the current level of glucose in a blood sample. They have been getting progressively smaller and less expensive since they were first introduced. The expense of testing is primarily in the one time use strips used which are unique to each testing machine. Some machines can also measure the amount of ketones in the blood, using different testing strips, or glycosylated hemoglobin (i.e., Hb1c).
Blood glucose monitoring
Tracking one's blood glucose level, usually by using a blood glucose meter. This was formerly characterized by periodic testing in a clinic or hospital. If done properly, the modern monitoring is far more useful, given the rapid changes of glucose levels as a result of meals, exercise, medication, etc.
Blood pressure
The hydraulic pressure in arteries caused heart contractions (i.e., of the left ventricle). It has two values. The higher is taken immediately at the end of the left ventricle's contraction. The lower is the 'background pressure' in the arteries when the left ventricle is not contracting. .
Blood-sampling device
Blood sugar
A (misnomer) name for blood glucose.
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
A measurement of a metabolic waste product in the blood. Urea is a characteristic end product of protein disassembly and processing; this continues normally as a function of tissue repair and replacement. Increased levels of BUN in the blood may indicate early kidney damage as the kidney fails to excrete it in the urine.
Blood vessels
Tubes which carry blood around the body. They come in three types, arteries, veins, and capillaries. Capillaries are always tiny, the others vary from large (centimeters in diameter) to quite small (slightly smaller than the diameter of a red blood cell).
Bolus
An amount of something given in one 'lump.' A meal is a food bolus, continuous snacking for an afternoon is not. In diabetes, bolus is an extra amount of insulin given in a single dose to cover an expected rise in blood glucose (sugar), such as the rise that occurs after eating.
Borderline Diabetes
A term no longer used. See: Impaired glucose tolerance.
Brittle diabetes
A person with a blood glucose (sugar) level often swings quickly from high to low and from low to high. Also called labile and unstable diabetes.
Hemochromatosis
.
Bunion
A bump or bulge on the first joint of the big toe caused by the swelling of a sac of fluid under the skin.

C

C.D.E.
See: #Certified diabetes educator.
C-peptide
A substance the pancreas releases into the bloodstream in equal amounts to insulin. While being stored in pancreatic beta cells, proinsulin includes both insulin and C-peptide, which is freed before insulin secretion into the blood. Currently, since pharmaceutical insulin does not contain C-peptide, a C-peptide level test will show how much insulin the body is making. Insulin is prepared as two insulin molecules linked by a c-peptide. When insulin is secreted, C-peptide is released as well. It has in recent years been shown to have hormone properties, so far chiefly in connection with arterial vessel muscle tone. It has been shown to ameliorate some diabetic complications, such as neuropathy and microvascular damage. C-peptide varies much more between animal species than does insulin itself.
Calcium channel blocker
Calcium ions are used in many cells, including beta cells, as a signaling mechanism. Since it does not ordinarily pass through cell membranes, protein pores in cell membranes are used to provide a channel through which it can be 'pumped' – an activity which requires energy if done against a concentration gradient. A Ca+ channel blocker is a drug which interferes with the operation of (some?) such channels. They have widespread effects, since Ca+ is used for many purposes in assorted tissues.
Callus
A small area of skin, usually on the foot, that has become thick and hard from rubbing or pressure as a result of increased production of surface skin (i.e., the topmost living cell layer); the callus itself is the result of this overgrowth and is itself a thickened 'dead cell surface layer'. Podiatry defines a callus as a skin lesion, and if it becomes cracked or internally separates, infection can follow, often with no warning signs. Calluses may lead to other problems such as serious infection. Shoes that fit well aid in reducing callus formation as they reduce localized rubbing and friction. Calluses are important risk factors for diabetics, in part because of changes in skin or vasculature characteristic of feet and lower legs in diabetics. See also: Foot care.
Calorie
a measure of the chemical energy in a specific amount of material. The food Calorie (resulting from combustion with oxygen from the atmosphere) is 1000x the calorie used in heat studies (i.e., in physics). Not all calories in food are actually usable. For instance, sawdust is largely cellulose (i.e., glucoses stuck together in long chains), and can be burned in a calorimeter (a common method of determining calorie content), but the human body contains no mechanism to convert it to its component glucoses for use as fuel. Calories relevant to diet (and so to diabetics) come only from those substances in food which can actually be used by the body. Thus, protein is not normally used for fuel, and so should not be counted as a food calorie in normal situations; nevertheless, it is usually taken into account. In a calorimeter (and in most diet references) all protein and carbohydrate is worth 4 calories/gram, while fat/oils are worth 9 calories/gram, and various alcohols and other (largely artificial) chemicals are worth fewer. A gram is about 1/25 of an ounce for those more familiar with English measures. The amount of usable calories in food is less than the amount measured in a calorimeter, and requires more care to determine. For instance, starch in plant foods is not readily available to be processed in digestion. Cooked starch (especially when cooked in the presence of moisture) is far more available digestively than raw starch (perhaps 60% vs nearly 100%).
Capillary
a very small blood vessel. At one end of a capillary is a connection to the body's arteries and at the other end of a capillary is a connection to the body's veins. It is in the capillaries that most gas exchange takes place (oxygen out of the blood into the tissues, and carbon dioxide into the blood). The reverse exchange happens in the capillaries of the lungs. Capillaries are controlled by very small muscles which, together, affect blood pressure very substantially. Those muscles are in turn controlled by, among other things, the presence or absence of insulin (and probably C-peptide) in the blood.
Capsaicin
a substance found in some plant products, especially hot peppers, which causes human nerves to report a hot sensation.
sugar cane
), accounts for some of the diseases of civilization, including diabetes. Fructose had been quite rare in human diet until that time. Dietary fructose also characteristically causes alterations in blood lipid profiles, probably by changing liver operations.
Cardiologist
a physician with special training for treating heart and circulatory problems.
Cardiovascular
pertaining to the heart and vascular system (blood vessels).
Carpal tunnel syndrome
irritation and swelling of one or more of the nerves in the carpal tunnel in the wrist. Effects range from considerable pain to loss of strength or muscle control. The cause is thought to be mechanical, as in repetitive motion of the wrist joint as in typing while in inappropriate wrist positions.
Cataract
clouding of the transparent protein in the lens of the eye. A certain amount of this clouding occurs naturally during life. The elderly do not, therefore see quite the same way as they used to since there is a slight yellowish cast in the clouded lens. Diabetics have an increased risk for cataract since high levels of glucose cause reactions with assorted proteins, including those in the lens; many of the reaction products are not optically clear, nor pack in the same way, thus altering the shape of the lens. There are both acute (changes more or less rapidly with changes in blood glucose), and chronic (longer term, slower changing) lens shape changes in diabetics, making eye examinations – for vision correction, for instance – somewhat tricky.
Cerebrovascular disease
damage to the blood vessels in the brain, resulting in a stroke – either ischemic (a blocked blood vessel) or hemorrhagic (i.e., a leaking blood vessel). People with diabetes are at higher risk of cerebrovascular disease.
Certified diabetes educator (C.D.E.)
a health care professional who is qualified by the American Association of Diabetes Educators to teach people with diabetes how to manage their condition. In the US, the health care team for diabetes should ideally include a diabetes educator, preferably a C.D.E.
Charcot foot
a foot complication associated with diabetic neuropathy that results in destruction of joints and soft tissue. Also called "Charcot's joint", "neuropathic arthropathy", and "neuropathic joint disease". Named for a Parisian physician Jean-Martin Charcot
.
Chemical diabetes
is a term that is no longer used. See: Impaired glucose tolerance.
Chlorpropamide
a pill taken to lower the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Only people with Type 2 diabetes take these pills. They are inappropriate for Type 1 diabetics as they increase the beta cell output of insulin which is normally missing in Type 1 diabetics due to beta cell destruction; there is no insulin production to be increased. See also: Oral hypoglycemic agents. This is one of the sulfonylureas (Diabinese).
Cholesterol
a waxy substance related to the steroid chemicals which serves as a substrate for many things including cell membrane construction. It is also involved in the transport of fat (i.e., lipids) in the blood. The transport mechanism (Low Density Cholesterol or High Density Cholesterol particles) varies, and not only in density. HDL is associated with the scavenging of plaque on arterial walls, while LDL is associated with deposition of such plaque. High cholesterol levels are statistically correlated with vessel disease and with heart attack in most, but not all, human populations. Cholesterol is manufactured in the body and is absorbed from food in the diet. Furthermore, some diet elements seem to be connected with higher body production of cholesterol (e.g., saturated fat).
Chronic
present over a long period of time. Diabetes and arthritis are examples of chronic diseases as there is yet no cure for either.
Starling's law response of heart muscle) and hormone mechanism (e.g., the renin to angiotension
linkage between the kidneys, lungs, heart, and blood pressure).
Clinical trial
a study carried out in humans (generally using volunteers) to answer a question such as whether a new treatment (or drug or exercise technique) is effective or safe as treatment. In the US, studies are broken into Phase I, Phase II, and Phase III trials. A properly designed study is carefully controlled and designed to produce reliable information. A poorly designed study does not produce reliable information, though its 'results' are often widely cited for various reasons (including commercial ones). Distinguishing between these is difficult or impossible for the non-specialist, and even for many specialists. For diabetes, industry organizations (e.g., the American Diabetes Association) maintain review committees which evaluate the results of many studies relevant to diabetes.
Coma
unconsciousness. For a diabetic, coma can be caused by hypoglycemia or by diabetic ketoacidosis.
Comatose
in a coma; not conscious.
nephropathy
). Multiple studies very clearly show that keeping blood glucose levels as close to the normal, nondiabetic range as possible does very significantly help prevent, slow, or delay the long-term complications of diabetes (e.g., eye, kidney, blood vessel, and nerve damage).
Congenital defect
problems or conditions that are present at birth.
Congestive heart failure
heart failure caused by loss of pumping power by the heart, resulting in fluids collecting in the body. If in the lungs, it is often called Chronic Pulmonary Edema.
Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII)
See: Insulin pump
.
Contraindication
A condition that makes a treatment not helpful or even harmful.
Controlled disease
taking care of oneself so that a disease has a reduced adverse effect on the body. People with diabetes can "control" the disease by staying on their diets, by exercising, by taking medicine if it is prescribed, by regular exercise, and by monitoring their blood glucose. This care will help keep the glucose (sugar) level in the blood from becoming either too high or too low, reducing or eliminating acute problems, and if sustained over a long time, reduce the chance of chronic problems as well.
Conventional therapy
a system of diabetes management practiced by most people with diabetes who are treated by medically qualified personnel; the system consists of one or more insulin injections each day, daily self-monitoring of blood glucose, and a standard (or prescribed) program of nutrition and exercise. The main objective in this form of treatment is to avoid very high and very low blood glucose (sugar). Contrast w/ close control or intensive therapy. Also called: "Standard Therapy." See complications of diabetes