Speaking in tongues

Sometimes a distinction is made between "glossolalia" and "xenolalia" or "xenoglossy", which specifically relates to the belief that the language being spoken is a natural language previously unknown to the speaker.^[6]

Etymology

Glossolalia is a borrowing of the γλωσσολαλία (glossolalía), which is a compound of the γλῶσσα (glossa) 'tongue, language'

It is verbal behaviour that consists of using a certain number of consonants and vowels ... in a limited number of syllables that in turn are organized into larger units that are taken apart and rearranged pseudogrammatically ... with variations in pitch, volume, speed and intensity.[12]

[Glossolalia] consists of strings of syllables, made up of sounds taken from all those that the speaker knows, put together more or less haphazardly but emerging nevertheless as word-like and sentence-like units because of realistic, language-like rhythm and melody.^[13]

That the sounds are taken from the set of sounds already known to the speaker is confirmed by others. Felicitas Goodman, a psychological anthropologist and linguist, also found that the speech of glossolalists reflected the patterns of speech of the speaker's native language.^[14] These findings were confirmed by Kavan (2004).^[15]

Samarin found that the resemblance to human language was merely on the surface and so concluded that glossolalia is "only a facade of language".^[16] He reached this conclusion because the syllable string did not form words, the stream of speech was not internally organized, and – most importantly of all – there was no systematic relationship between units of speech and concepts. Humans use language to communicate but glossolalia does not. Therefore, he concluded that glossolalia is not "a specimen of human language because it is neither internally organized nor systematically related to the world man perceives".^[16] On the basis of his linguistic analysis, Samarin defined Pentecostal glossolalia as "meaningless but phonologically structured human utterance, believed by the speaker to be a real language but bearing no systematic resemblance to any natural language, living or dead".^[17]

Felicitas Goodman studied a number of Pentecostal communities in the United States, the Caribbean, and Mexico; these included English-, Spanish- and Mayan-speaking groups. She compared what she found with recordings of non-Christian rituals from Africa, Borneo, Indonesia and Japan. She took into account both the segmental structure (such as sounds, syllables, phrases) and the supra-segmental elements (rhythm, accent, intonation) and concluded that there was no distinction between what was practised by the Pentecostal Protestants and the followers of other religions.^[18]

History

Classical antiquity

It was a commonplace idea within the

In his writings on early Christianity, the Greek philosopher Celsus includes an account of Christian glossolalia. Celsus describes prophecies made by several Christians in Palestine and Phoenicia of which he writes, "Having brandished these threats they then go on to add incomprehensible, incoherent, and utterly obscure utterances, the meaning of which no intelligent person could discover: for they are meaningless and nonsensical, and give a chance for any fool or sorcerer to take the words in whatever sense he likes".^[21]

References to speaking in tongues by the

• 12th century – Bernard of Clairvaux explained that speaking tongues be no longer present because there be greater miracles – the transformed lives of believers.^[24]
• 12th century – Hildegard of Bingen is said to have possessed the gift of visions and prophecy and to have been able to speak and write in Latin without having learned the language.^[25]
• 1265 – Thomas Aquinas wrote about the gift of tongues in the New Testament, which he understood to be an ability to speak every language, given for the purposes of missionary work. He explained that Christ did not have this gift because his mission was to the Jews, "nor does each one of the faithful now speak save in one tongue"; for "no one speaks in the tongues of all nations, because the Church herself already speaks the languages of all nations".^[26]
• 15th century – The Moravians are referred to by detractors as having spoken in tongues. John Roche, a contemporary critic, claimed that the Moravians "commonly broke into some disconnected Jargon, which they often passed upon the vulgar, 'as the exuberant and resistless Evacuations of the Spirit'".^[27]
• 17th century – The French Prophets: The Camisards also spoke sometimes in languages that were unknown: "Several persons of both Sexes", James Du Bois of Montpellier recalled, "I have heard in their Extasies pronounce certain words, which seem'd to the Standers-by, to be some Foreign Language". These utterances were sometimes accompanied by the gift of interpretation exercised, in Du Bois' experience, by the same person who had spoken in tongues.^[28][29]
• 17th century – Early Quakers, such as Edward Burrough, make mention of tongues-speaking in their meetings: "We spoke with new tongues, as the Lord gave us utterance, and His Spirit led us".^[30]
• 1817 – In Germany, Gustav von Below, an aristocratic officer of the Prussian Guard, and his brothers, founded a religious movement based on their estates in Pomerania, which may have included speaking in tongues.^[31]
• 19th century – Edward Irving and the Catholic Apostolic Church. Edward Irving, a minister in the Church of Scotland, writes of a woman who would "speak at great length, and with superhuman strength, in an unknown tongue, to the great astonishment of all who heard, and to her own great edification and enjoyment in God".^[32] Irving further stated that "tongues are a great instrument for personal edification, however mysterious it may seem to us".^[33]
• 19th century – The history of the
  Latter-day Saints believe that speaking in tongues and the interpretation of tongues is alive and well in the Church, modern Mormons are much more likely to point to the way in which LDS missionaries are trained and learn foreign languages quickly, and are able to communicate rapidly on their missions, as evidence of the manifestation of this gift. This interpretation stems from a 1900 General Conference sermon by Joseph F. Smith which discouraged glossolalia; subsequent leaders echoed this recommendation for about a decade afterwards and subsequently the practice had largely died out amongst Mormons by the 1930s and '40s.^[36]

During the 20th century, glossolalia primarily became associated with Pentecostalism and the later

A Mohammedan, a Soudanese by birth, a man who is an interpreter and speaks sixteen languages, came into the meetings at Azusa Street and the Lord gave him messages which none but himself could understand. He identified, interpreted and wrote a number of the languages.^[37]

Parham and his early followers believed that speaking in tongues was xenoglossia, and some followers traveled to foreign countries and tried to use the gift to share the Gospel with non-English-speaking people. From the time of the Azusa Street revival and among early participants in the Pentecostal movement, there were many accounts of individuals hearing their own languages spoken 'in tongues'. The majority of Pentecostals and Charismatics consider speaking in tongues to primarily be divine, or the "language of angels", rather than human languages.^[38] In the years following the Azusa Street revival Pentecostals who went to the mission field found that they were unable to speak in the language of the local inhabitants at will when they spoke in tongues in strange lands.^[39]

The revival at Azusa Street lasted until around 1915. From it grew many new Pentecostal churches as people visited the services in Los Angeles and took their newfound beliefs to communities around the United States and abroad. During the 20th century, glossolalia became an important part of the identity of these religious groups. During the 1960s, the

In Christianity, a supernatural explanation for glossolalia is advocated by some and rejected by others. Proponents of each viewpoint use the biblical writings and historical arguments to support their positions.

• Glossolalists could, apart from those practicing glossolalia, also mean all those Christians who believe that the Pentecostal/charismatic glossolalia practiced today is the "speaking in tongues" described in the New Testament. They believe that it is a miraculous
  xenoglossia)^[42][43] as well as a "language of the spirit", a "heavenly language", or perhaps the language of angels.^[44]
• Cessationists
  believe that all the miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit ceased to occur early in Christian history, and therefore that the speaking in tongues as practiced by Charismatic Christians is the learned utterance of non-linguistic syllables. According to this belief, it is neither xenoglossia nor miraculous, but rather taught behavior, possibly self-induced. These believe that what the New Testament described as "speaking in tongues" was xenoglossia, a miraculous spiritual gift through which the speaker could communicate in natural languages not previously studied.
• A third position claims that glossolalia does exist, but it is a form of prelest, not the "speaking in tongues" described in the New Testament. It believes glossolalia is part of a mediumistic technique where practitioners are manifesting genuine spiritual power, but this power is not necessarily of the Holy Spirit.^[4]
• A fourth position conceivably exists, which believes the practice of "glossolalia" to be a folk practice and different from the legitimate New Testament spiritual gift of speaking/interpreting real languages. It is therefore not out of a belief that "miracles have ceased" (i.e., cessationism) that causes this group to discredit the supernatural origins of particular modern expressions of "glossolalia", but it is rather out of a belief that glossolalists have misunderstood Scripture and wrongly attributed to the Holy Spirit something that may be explained naturalistically.^[45]

Biblical practice

There are five places in the New Testament where speaking in tongues is referred to explicitly:

• Christ to the apostles
  , including his description that "they will speak with new tongues" as a sign that would follow "them that believe" in him.
• Acts 2, which describes an occurrence of speaking in tongues in Jerusalem at Pentecost, though with various interpretations. Specifically, "every man heard them speak in his own language" and wondered "how hear we every man in our own tongue, wherein we were born?"
• Acts 10:46, when the household of Cornelius in Caesarea spoke in tongues, and those present compared it to the speaking in tongues that occurred at Pentecost.
• Acts 19:6, when a group of approximately a dozen men spoke in tongues in Ephesus as they received the Holy Spirit while the apostle Paul laid his hands upon them.
• church
  .

Other verses by inference may be considered to refer to "speaking in tongues", such as Isaiah 28:11, Romans 8:26 and Jude 20.

The biblical account of

Glossolalists and cessationists generally agree that the primary purpose of the gift of speaking in tongues was to mark the

• Universal. The traditional
  Apostle Paul to the Ephesian believers "Have ye received the Holy Ghost since ye believed?" (Acts 19:2
  ).
• One gift. Different aspects of speaking in tongues appear in Acts and 1 Corinthians, such that the Assemblies of God declare that the gift in Acts "is the same in essence as the gift of tongues" in 1 Corinthians "but different in purpose and use".^[47] They distinguish between (private) speech in tongues when receiving the gift of the Spirit, and (public) speech in tongues for the benefit of the church. Others assert that the gift in Acts was "not a different phenomenon" but the same gift being displayed under varying circumstances.^[49] The same description – "speaking in tongues" – is used in both Acts and 1 Corinthians, and in both cases the speech is in an unlearned language.
• Direction. The New Testament describes tongues largely as speech addressed to God, but also as something that can potentially be interpreted into human language, thereby "edifying the hearers" (
  interpretation of tongues (1 Cor 14:5), and instructed those speaking in tongues to pray for the ability to interpret their tongues so that others could understand them (1 Cor 14:13). While some people limit speaking in tongues to speech addressed to God – "prayer or praise",^[42] others claim that speaking in tongues be the revelation from God to the church, and when interpreted into human language by those embued with the gift of interpretation of tongues for the benefit of others present, may be considered equivalent to prophecy.^[50]
• Music. Musical interludes of glossolalia are sometimes described as singing in the Spirit. Some hold that singing in the Spirit is identified with singing in tongues in 1 Corinthians 14:13–19,^[51][52] which they hold to be "spiritual or spirited singing", as opposed to "communicative or impactive singing" which Paul refers to as "singing with the understanding".^[53]
• Sign for unbelievers (1 Cor 14:22). Some assume that tongues are "a sign for unbelievers that they might believe",^[54] and so advocate it as a means of evangelism. Others point out that Paul quotes Isaiah to show that "when God speaks to people in language they cannot understand, it is quite evidently a sign of God's judgment"; so if unbelievers are baffled by a church service they cannot understand because tongues are spoken without being interpreted, that is a "sign of God's attitude", "a sign of judgment".^[55] Some identify the tongues in Acts 2 as the primary example of tongues as signs for unbelievers.
• Comprehension. Some say that speaking in tongues was "not understood by the speaker".^[42] Others assert that "the tongues-speaker normally understood his own foreign-language message".^[56] This last comment seems to have been made by someone confusing the "gift of tongues" with the "gift of the interpretation of tongues" , which is specified as a different gift in the New Testament, but one that can be given to a person who also has the gift of tongues. In that case, a person understands a message in tongues that he has previously spoken in an unknown language.

Pentecostal and charismatic practices

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Major denominations Apostolic Church Assemblies of God Church of God in Christ Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) Indian Pentecostal Church of God Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians International Pentecostal Holiness Church The Foursquare Church United Pentecostal Church International
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Because Pentecostal and charismatic beliefs are not monolithic, there is not complete theological agreement on speaking in tongues.^[citation needed] Generally, followers believe that speaking in tongues is a spiritual gift that can be manifested as either a human language or a heavenly supernatural language in three ways:^[58]

• The "sign of tongues" refers to
  xenoglossia
  , wherein followers believe someone is speaking a language they have never learned.
• The "gift of tongues" refers to a glossolalic utterance spoken by an individual and addressed to a congregation of, typically, other believers.
• "Praying in the spirit" is typically used to refer to glossolalia as part of personal prayer.^[59]

Many Pentecostals and charismatics quote Paul's words in 1 Corinthians 14 which established guidelines on the public use of glossolalia in the church at Corinth although the exegesis of this passage and the extent to which these instructions are followed is a matter of academic debate.^[60]

The gift of tongues is often referred to as a "message in tongues".

• One school of thought believes it is always directed to God as prayer, praise, or thanksgiving but is spoken in for the hearing and edification of the congregation.^[citation needed]
• The other school of thought believes that a message in tongues can be a prophetic utterance inspired by the Holy Spirit.^[62] In this case, the speaker delivers a message to the congregation on behalf of God.^{[citation needed]}

In addition to praying in the Spirit, many Pentecostal and charismatic churches practice what is known as singing in the Spirit.^[63][64][65]

Interpretation of tongues

In

Glossolalia has been postulated as an explanation for the Voynich manuscript.^[67]

In the 19th century,

Medical research

Glossolalia is classified as a non-neurogenic language disorder.^[68] Most people exhibiting glossolalia do not have a neuropsychiatric disorder.^[69]

Neuroimaging of brain activity during glossolalia does not show activity in the language areas of the brain.^[69][70] In other words, it may be characterized by a specific brain activity^[71][72] and it can be a learned behaviour.^[73][71]

A 1973 experimental study highlighted the existence of two basic types of glossolalia: a static form which tends to a somewhat coaction to repetitiveness and a more dynamic one which tends to free association of speech-like elements.^[74][71]

A study done by the American Journal of Human Biology found that speaking in tongues is associated with both a reduction in circulatory cortisol, and enhancements in alpha-amylase enzyme activity – two common biomarkers of stress reduction that can be measured in saliva.^[75] Several sociological studies report various social benefits of engaging in Pentecostal glossolalia,^[76][77] such as an increase in self-confidence.^[77]

As of April 2021, further studies are needed to corroborate the 1980s view of glossolaly with more sensitive measures of outcome, by using the more recent techniques of neuroimaging.

Criticism

Analysis of glossolalics reveals a pseudo-language that lacks consistent syntax, semantic meaning, usually rhythmic or poetic in nature and is similar to the speaker's native tongue. Samples of glossolalia show a lack of consistency needed for meaningful comparison or translation. It also is not used to communicate between fellow glossolalia speakers, although the meaning might be translated by the leader involved, in line with and supportive of whatever message or teaching had been given that day, in some way giving divine legitimacy to what is said. However it's more common that others than the leader translate.^[78]

Various Christian groups have criticized the Pentecostal and charismatic movement for paying too much attention to

References

Bibliography

• Martin, Dale B. (1995), The Corinthian Body, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press,
  ISBN 978-0300081725

Further reading

• Cartledge, Mark J., ed. (2006). Speaking in Tongues: Multi-Disciplinary Perspectives. Paternoster Press.
• Ensley, Eddie (1977). Sounds of wonder: Speaking in tongues in the Catholic tradition. New York: Paulist Press.
• Goodman, Felicitas D. (1972). Speaking in Tongues: A Cross-cultural Study of Glossolalia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Gromacki, Robert G. (1976). The Modern Tongues Movement. Baker Books.
  ISBN 978-0801037085
  .
• Harris, Ralph W. (1973). Spoken by the Spirit: Documented Accounts of 'Other Tongues' from Arabic to Zulu. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House.
• Hoekema, Anthony A. (1966). What about tongue-speaking?. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
• Johnson, Luke Timothy (1998). Religious Experience in Earliest Christianity: A Missing Dimension in New Testament Studies. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.
  ISBN 0800631293
  .
• Keener, Craig (2011). Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts. Vol. 1–2. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
• Kelsey, Morton T. (1964). Tongue-Speaking: An Experiment in Religious Experience. New York: Doubleday.
• Kostelnik, Joseph (1981). Prayer in the Spirit: The Missing Link. Prophetic Voice Publications.
  ISBN 9798764898568
  .
• MacArthur, John F. (1993). Charismatic Chaos. Zondervan.
  ISBN 978-0310575726
  .
• Malony, H. Newton; Lovekin, A. Adams (1985). Glossolalia: Behavioral Science Perspectives on Speaking in Tongues. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 0195035690
  .
• May, Jordan D. (2013). Global Witness to Pentecost: The Testimony of 'Other Tongues'. Cleveland, TN: CPT Press.
• Mills, Watson E. (1986). Speaking in Tongues: A Guide to Research on Glossolalia. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans.
• Roberson, Dave (22 January 1999). The Walk of the Spirit — The Walk of Power: The Vital Role of Praying in Tongues (PDF). Dave Roberson Ministries.
  ISBN 978-1-929339-10-5. Archived from the original
  (PDF) on 28 February 2013.
• Roybal, Rory (2005). Miracles or Magic?. Xulon Press.
  ISBN 9781597812504
  .
• Ruthven, Jon (2012). On the Cessation of the Charismata: The Protestant Polemic on Post-biblical Miracles (2nd ed.). Word & Spirit Press.
• Sadler, Paul M. (2001). The Supernatural Sign Gifts of the Acts Period (PDF). Berean Bible Society.
  ISBN 1-893874-28-1. Archived from the original on 4 October 2011.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link
  )
• Sherrill, John L. (1964). They Speak with Other Tongues. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Stronstad, Roger (1984). The charismatic theology of St. Luke. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers.
• Tarr, Del (2010). The Foolishness of God: A Linguist Looks at the Mystery of Tongues. Springfield, MO: Access Group Publishers.
• Yun, Koo D. (2003). Baptism in the Holy Spirit. New York: University Press of America.

External links

Look up glossolalia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Gerlach, Joel C., "Glossolalia" (from a
  Confessional Lutheran
  perspective)
• Video recorded during a Sunday Prayer Meeting; 10 February 2008;
  Cochin, India, Kerala
  ; this prayer group functions under the Catholic Charismatic Renewal in India.
• Example of singing in tongues with a music recording in mp3; 2014; message-for-you.net; charismatic movement
• "Gift of Tongues". T. Reilly. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14. 1912.
• "Tongues". by John Salza, bible verses and the Catholic Church fathers on speaking in tongues
• "Glossolalia". bible411.com. (Cessationist perspective)
• "Glossolalia as Foreign Language". D. William Faupel. Wesleyan Theological Journal Vol. 31 No. 1 (Spring 1996): pp. 95–109. (Historical study of Pentecostal beliefs)
• "Questions about Tongues". Assemblies of God USA. (Pentecostal perspective)
• "The Function of Tongue-Speaking for the Individual: A Psycho-Theological Model". Daniel A. Tappeiner. Journal of American Scientific Affiliation. Vol. 26. March 1974. pp. 29–32.
• Andrei Bely's Glossalolia {sic} with an English translation
• (in Italian) Esperimenti di Glossolalia. A case of glossolalia in theatre.
• "Lalia". Extreme episode of glossolalia captured in modern music.