Glyphosate
Idealised skeletal formula
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Names | |
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Pronunciation | /ˈɡlɪfəseɪt, ˈɡlaɪfə-/,[3] /ɡlaɪˈfɒseɪt/[4][5] |
IUPAC name
N-(Phosphonomethyl)glycine
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Systematic IUPAC name
[(Phosphonomethyl)amino]acetic acid | |
Identifiers | |
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3D model (
JSmol ) |
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2045054 | |
ChEBI | |
ChEMBL | |
ChemSpider | |
DrugBank | |
ECHA InfoCard
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100.012.726 |
EC Number |
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279222 | |
KEGG | |
PubChem CID
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RTECS number
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UNII | |
UN number | 3077 2783 |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties[6] | |
C3H8NO5P | |
Molar mass | 169.073 g·mol−1 |
Appearance | white crystalline powder |
Density | 1.704 (20 °C) |
Melting point | 184.5 °C (364.1 °F; 457.6 K) |
Boiling point | 187 °C (369 °F; 460 K) decomposes |
1.01 g/100 mL (20 °C) | |
log P | −2.8 |
Acidity (pKa) | <2, 2.6, 5.6, 10.6 |
Hazards[6][7] | |
GHS labelling: | |
Danger | |
H318, H411 | |
P273, P280, P305+P351+P338, P310, P501 | |
Flash point | Non-flammable |
Safety data sheet (SDS) | InChem MSDS |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Glyphosate (
Farmers quickly adopted glyphosate for agricultural weed control, especially after Monsanto introduced glyphosate-resistant
Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage, and minimally through roots, and from there translocated to growing points. It inhibits
While glyphosate and formulations such as Roundup have been approved by regulatory bodies worldwide, concerns about their effects on humans and the environment have persisted.[9][10] A number of regulatory and scholarly reviews have evaluated the relative toxicity of glyphosate as an herbicide. The WHO and FAO Joint committee on pesticide residues issued a report in 2016 stating the use of glyphosate formulations does not necessarily constitute a health risk, and giving an acceptable daily intake limit of 1 milligram per kilogram of body weight per day for chronic toxicity.[11]
The
Discovery
Glyphosate was first synthesized in 1950 by Swiss chemist Henry Martin, who worked for the Swiss company Cilag. The work was never published.[19]: 1 Early studies found it to be a weak chemical chelating agent.[20][21]
Somewhat later, glyphosate was independently discovered in the
Monsanto developed and patented the use of glyphosate to kill weeds in the early 1970s and first brought it to market in 1974, under the Roundup brandname.[27][28] While its initial patent[29] expired in 1991, Monsanto retained exclusive rights in the United States until its patent[30] on the isopropylamine salt expired in September 2000.[31]
In 2008, United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) scientist Stephen O. Duke and Stephen B. Powles – an Australian weed expert – described glyphosate as a "virtually ideal" herbicide.[27] In 2010 Powles stated: "glyphosate is a one in a 100-year discovery that is as important for reliable global food production as penicillin is for battling disease."[32]
As of April 2017, the Canadian government stated that glyphosate was "the most widely used herbicide in Canada",[33] at which date the product labels were revised to ensure a limit of 20% POEA by weight.[33][failed verification] Health Canada's Pest Management Regulatory Agency found no risk to humans or the environment at that 20% limit, and that all products registered in Canada at that time were at or below that limit.
Chemistry
Glyphosate is an aminophosphonic analogue of the natural amino acid
- PCl3 + H2CO → Cl2P(=O)−CH2Cl
- Cl2P(=O)−CH2Cl + 2 H2O → (HO)2P(=O)−CH2Cl + 2 HCl
- (HO)2P(=O)−CH2Cl + H2N−CH2−COOH → (HO)2P(=O)−CH2−NH−CH2−COOH + HCl
The main deactivation path for glyphosate is hydrolysis to aminomethylphosphonic acid.[35]
Synthesis
Two main approaches are used to synthesize glyphosate industrially, both of which proceed via the Kabachnik–Fields reaction. The first is to react iminodiacetic acid and formaldehyde with phosphorous acid (sometimes formed in situ from phosphorus trichloride using the water generated by the Mannich reaction of the first two reagents). Decarboxylation of the hydrophosphonylation product gives the desired glyphosate product. Iminodiacetic acid is usually prepared on-site by various methods depending on reagent availability.[19]
The second uses
This synthetic approach is responsible for a substantial portion of the production of glyphosate in China, with considerable work having gone into recycling the triethylamine and methanol solvents.[19] Progress has also been made in attempting to eliminate the need for triethylamine altogether.[36]
Impurities
Technical grade glyphosate is a white powder which, according to
Formulations
Glyphosate is marketed in the United States and worldwide by many
Glyphosate is an acid molecule, so it is formulated as a salt for packaging and handling. Various salt formulations include isopropylamine, diammonium, monoammonium, or potassium as the counterion. The active ingredient of the Monsanto herbicides is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Another important ingredient in some formulations is the surfactant polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA). Some brands include more than one salt. Some companies report their product as acid equivalent (ae) of glyphosate acid, or some report it as active ingredient (ai) of glyphosate plus the salt, and others report both. To compare performance of different formulations, knowledge of how the products were formulated is needed. Given that different salts have different weights, the acid equivalent is a more accurate method of expressing and comparing concentrations.
Adjuvant loading refers to the amount of adjuvant[49][50] already added to the glyphosate product. Fully loaded products contain all the necessary adjuvants, including surfactant; some contain no adjuvant system, while other products contain only a limited amount of adjuvant (minimal or partial loading) and additional surfactants must be added to the spray tank before application.[51]
Products are supplied most commonly in formulations of 120, 240, 360, 480, and 680 g/L of active ingredient. The most common formulation in agriculture is 360 g/L, either alone or with added
For 360 grams per litre (0.013 lb/cu in) formulations, European regulations allow applications of up to 12 litres per hectare (1.1 imp gal/acre) for control of perennial weeds such as
Mode of action
Glyphosate interferes with the
Under normal circumstances, EPSP is
X-ray crystallographic studies of glyphosate and EPSPS show that glyphosate functions by occupying the binding site of the phosphoenolpyruvate, mimicking an intermediate state of the ternary enzyme–substrate complex.[63][64] Glyphosate inhibits the EPSPS enzymes of different species of plants and microbes at different rates.[65][66]
Uses
Glyphosate is effective in killing a wide variety of plants, including
Glyphosate and related herbicides are often used in
In many cities, glyphosate is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of glyphosate applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water.
Glyphosate is also used for crop desiccation to increase harvest yield and uniformity.[57] Glyphosate itself is not a chemical desiccant; rather crop desiccants are so named because application just before harvest kills the crop plants so that the food crop dries from normal environmental conditions ("dry-down") more quickly and evenly.[72][74] Because glyphosate is systemic, excess residue levels can persist in plants due to incorrect application and this may render the crop unfit for sale.[75] When applied appropriately, it can promote useful effects. In sugarcane, for example, glyphosate application increases sucrose concentration before harvest.[76] In grain crops (wheat, barley, oats), uniformly dried crops do not have to be windrowed (swathed and dried) prior to harvest, but can easily be straight-cut and harvested. This saves the farmer time and money, which is important in northern regions where the growing season is short, and it enhances grain storage when the grain has a lower and more uniform moisture content.[57][77][78]
Genetically modified crops
Some micro-organisms have a version of
still under development.In 2023, 91% of corn, 95% of soybeans, and 94% of cotton produced in the United States were from strains that were genetically modified to be tolerant to multiple herbicides, including dicamba, glufosinate, and glyphosate.[82]
Environmental fate
Glyphosate has four ionizable sites, with
The half-life of glyphosate in soil ranges between 2 and 197 days; a typical field half-life of 47 days has been suggested. Soil and climate conditions affect glyphosate's persistence in soil. The median half-life of glyphosate in water varies from a few to 91 days.[56] At a site in Texas, half-life was as little as three days. A site in Iowa had a half-life of 141.9 days.[93] The glyphosate metabolite AMPA has been found in Swedish forest soils up to two years after a glyphosate application. In this case, the persistence of AMPA was attributed to the soil being frozen for most of the year.[94] Glyphosate adsorption to soil, and later release from soil, varies depending on the kind of soil.[95][96] Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12- to 60-day persistence observed in Canadian ponds, although persistence of over a year has been recorded in the sediments of American ponds.[92] The half-life of glyphosate in water is between 12 days and 10 weeks.[97]
Residues in food products
According to the National Pesticide Information Center fact sheet, glyphosate is not included in compounds tested for by the Food and Drug Administration's Pesticide Residue Monitoring Program, nor in the United States Department of Agriculture's Pesticide Data Program.[56] The U.S. has determined the acceptable daily intake of glyphosate at 1.75 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg/bw/day) while the European Union has set it at 0.5.[98]
Pesticide residue controls carried out by EU Member States in 2016 analysed 6,761 samples of food products for glyphosate residues. 3.6% of the samples contained
Toxicity
Glyphosate is the active ingredient in herbicide formulations containing it. However, in addition to glyphosate salts, commercial formulations of glyphosate contain additives (known as adjuvants) such as surfactants, which vary in nature and concentration. Surfactants such as polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) are added to glyphosate to enable it to wet the leaves and penetrate the cuticle of the plants.
Glyphosate alone
Humans
The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low,[101] but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of concentrated formulations.[102] The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation.[103][104] In a 2017 risk assessment, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) wrote: "There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans. Where skin irritation has been reported, it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co-formulants in glyphosate-containing herbicide formulations." The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation.[105] Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.[103]
Cancer
The
As of 2020[update], the evidence for long-term exposure to glyphosate increasing the risk of human cancer remains inconclusive.[111] There is weak evidence human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, such as in agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening.[112][113]
Although some small studies have suggested an association between glyphosate and
Other mammals
Amongst mammals, glyphosate is considered to have "low to very low toxicity". The
A review of unpublished short-term rabbit-feeding studies reported severe toxicity effects at 150 mg/kg/day and "
Glyphosate-based herbicides may cause life-threatening arrhythmias in mammals. Evidence also shows that such herbicides cause direct electrophysiological changes in the cardiovascular systems of rats and rabbits.[118]
Aquatic fauna
In many freshwater invertebrates, glyphosate has a 48-hour
Antimicrobial activity
The antimicrobial activity of glyphosate has been described in the microbiology literature since its discovery in 1970 and the description of glyphosate's mechanism of action in 1972. Efficacy was described for numerous bacteria and fungi.[119] Glyphosate can control the growth of apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum (malaria), and Cryptosporidium parvum, and has been considered an antimicrobial agent in mammals.[120] Inhibition can occur with some Rhizobium species important for soybean nitrogen fixation, especially under moisture stress.[121]
Soil biota
When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be bound to soil particles, thereby slowing its degradation.[92][122] Glyphosate and its degradation product, aminomethylphosphonic acid are considered to be much more benign toxicologically and environmentally than most of the herbicides replaced by glyphosate.[123] A 2016 meta-analysis concluded that at typical application rates glyphosate had no effect on soil microbial biomass or respiration.[124] A 2016 review noted that contrasting effects of glyphosate on earthworms have been found in different experiments with some species unaffected, but others losing weight or avoiding treated soil. Further research is required to determine the impact of glyphosate on earthworms in complex ecosystems.[125]
Endocrine disruption
In 2007, the EPA selected glyphosate for further screening through its Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP). Selection for this program is based on a compound's prevalence of use and does not imply particular suspicion of
Effect on plant health
Some studies have found causal relationships between glyphosate and increased or decreased disease resistance.[129] Exposure to glyphosate has been shown to change the species composition of endophytic bacteria in plant hosts, which is highly variable.[130]
Glyphosate-based formulations
Glyphosate-based formulations may contain a number of adjuvants, the identities of which may be proprietary.[131] Surfactants are used in herbicide formulations as wetting agents, to maximize coverage and aid penetration of the herbicide(s) through plant leaves. As agricultural spray adjuvants, surfactants may be pre-mixed into commercial formulations or they may be purchased separately and mixed on-site.[132]
Polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) is a surfactant used in the original Roundup formulation and was commonly used in 2015.[133] Different versions of Roundup have included different percentages of POEA. A 1997 US government report said that Roundup is 15% POEA while Roundup Pro is 14.5%.[134] Since POEA is more toxic to fish and amphibians than glyphosate alone, POEA is not allowed in aquatic formulations.[135][134][136] A 2000 review of the ecotoxicological data on Roundup shows at least 58 studies exist on the effects of Roundup on a range of organisms.[93] This review concluded that "...for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed non-target organisms".[137]
Human
Overall, there is no conclusive evidence on glyphosate's effect on human health.[138][139]
Aquatic fauna
Glyphosate products for aquatic use generally do not use surfactants, and aquatic formulations do not use POEA due to aquatic organism toxicity.[135] Due to the presence of POEA, such glyphosate formulations only allowed for terrestrial use are more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone.[135][134][136] The half-life of POEA (21–42 days) is longer than that for glyphosate (7–14 days) in aquatic environments.[141] Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets where concentrations would be much lower than label rates.[135]
Some researchers have suggested the toxicity effects of pesticides on amphibians may be different from those of other aquatic fauna because of their lifestyle; amphibians may be more susceptible to the toxic effects of pesticides because they often prefer to breed in shallow,
A 2003 study of various formulations of glyphosate found, "[the] risk assessments based on estimated and measured concentrations of glyphosate that would result from its use for the control of undesirable plants in wetlands and over-water situations showed that the risk to aquatic organisms is negligible or small at application rates less than 4 kg/ha and only slightly greater at application rates of 8 kg/ha."[143]
A 2013 meta-analysis reviewed the available data related to potential impacts of glyphosate-based herbicides on amphibians. According to the authors, the use of glyphosate-based pesticides cannot be considered the major cause of amphibian decline, the bulk of which occurred prior to the widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure. The authors recommended further study of per-species and per-development-stage chronic toxicity, of environmental glyphosate levels, and ongoing analysis of data relevant to determining what if any role glyphosate might be playing in worldwide amphibian decline, and suggest including amphibians in standardized test batteries.[144]
Genetic damage
Several studies have not found mutagenic effects,[145] so glyphosate has not been listed in the United States Environmental Protection Agency or the International Agency for Research on Cancer databases.[citation needed] Various other studies suggest glyphosate may be mutagenic.[citation needed] The IARC monograph noted that glyphosate-based formulations can cause DNA strand breaks in various taxa of animals in vitro.[15]
Government and organization positions
European Food Safety Authority
A 2013 systematic review by the
In November 2015, EFSA published its conclusion in the Renewal Assessment Report (RAR), stating it was "unlikely to pose a carcinogenic hazard to humans".EFSA's decision and the BfR report were criticized in an open letter published by 96 scientists in November 2015 saying that the BfR report failed to adhere to accepted scientific principles of open and transparent procedures.[152][153] The BfR report included unpublished data, lacked authorship, omitted references, and did not disclose conflict-of-interest information.[153]
In July 2023, EFSA re-evaluated after three years of assessment the putative impact of glyphosate on the health of humans, animals and the environment. As a result, no critical areas of concern were identified that would otherwise prevent glyphosate's registration renewal in the
International Agency for Research on Cancer
In March 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations, published a summary of their forthcoming monograph on glyphosate, and classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic in humans" (category 2A) based on epidemiological studies, animal studies, and in vitro studies. It noted that there was "limited evidence" of carcinogenicity in humans for non-Hodgkin lymphoma.[10][13][14][15][157] The IARC classifies substances for their carcinogenic potential, and "a few positive findings can be enough to declare a hazard, even if there are negative studies, as well." Unlike the BfR, it does not conduct a risk assessment, weighing benefits against risk.[158]
The BfR responded that IARC reviewed only a selection of what they[who?] had reviewed earlier, and argued that other studies, including a cohort study called Agricultural Health Study, do not support the classification.[159] The IARC report did not include unpublished studies, including one completed by the IARC panel leader.[160] The agency's international protocol dictates that only published studies be used in classifications of carcinogenicity,[161] since national regulatory agencies including the EPA have allowed agrochemical corporations to conduct their own unpublished research, which may be biased in support of their profit motives.[162]
Reviews of the EFSA and IARC reports
A 2017 review done by personnel from EFSA and BfR argued that the differences between the IARC's and EFSA's conclusions regarding glyphosate and cancer were due to differences in their evaluation of the available evidence. The review concluded that "Two complementary exposure assessments ... suggests that actual exposure levels are below" the reference values identified by the EFSA "and do not represent a public concern."[12]
In contrast, a 2016 analysis by Christopher Portier, a scientist advising the IARC in the assessment of glyphosate and advocate for its classification as possibly carcinogenic, concluded that in the EFSA's Renewal Assessment Report, "almost no weight is given to studies from the published literature and there is an over-reliance on non-publicly available industry-provided studies using a limited set of assays that define the minimum data necessary for the marketing of a pesticide", arguing that the IARC's evaluation of probably carcinogenic to humans "accurately reflects the results of published scientific literature on glyphosate".[163]
In October 2017, an article in The Times revealed that Portier had received consulting contracts with two law firm associations representing alleged glyphosate cancer victims that included a payment of US$160,000 to Portier.[164][165] The IARC final report was also found to have changed compared to an interim report, through the removal of text saying certain studies had found glyphosate was not carcinogenic in that study's context, and through strengthening a conclusion of "limited evidence of animal carcinogenicity," to "sufficient evidence of animal carcinogenicity".[166]
US Environmental Protection Agency
In a 1993 review, the
In 2017, evidence collected in a lawsuit brought against Monsanto by cancer patients revealed company emails which appeared to show a friendly relationship with a senior EPA official.[169]
Monsanto response and campaign
Monsanto called the IARC report biased and said it wanted the report to be retracted.
Two journalists from Le Monde won the 2018 European Press Prize for a series of articles on the documents, also titled Monsanto Papers. Their reporting described, among other things, Monsanto's lawyers' letters demanding that IARC scientists turn over documents relating to Monograph 112, which contained the IARC finding that glyphosate was a "probable carcinogen"; several of the scientists condemned these letters as intimidating.[176]
California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment
In March 2015, the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) announced plans to have glyphosate listed as a known carcinogen based on the IARC assessment. In 2016, Monsanto started a case against OEHHA and its acting director, Lauren Zeise,[177] but lost the suit in March 2017.[178]
Glyphosate was listed as "known to the State of California to cause cancer" in 2017, requiring warning labels under
European Chemicals Agency
On March 15, 2017 the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) announced recommendations proceeding from a risk assessment of glyphosate performed by ECHA's Committee for Risk Assessment (RAC). Their recommendations maintained the current classification of glyphosate as a substance causing serious eye damage and as a substance toxic to aquatic life. However, the RAC did not find evidence implicating glyphosate to be a carcinogen, a mutagen, toxic to reproduction, nor toxic to specific organs.[181] In 2022, the agency reiterated these findings in a later review and stated on cancer risk that, "Based on a wide-ranging review of scientific evidence, the committee again concludes that classifying glyphosate as a carcinogen is not justified."[182]
Effects of use
Emergence of resistant weeds
In the 1990s, no
According to Ian Heap, a weed specialist, who completed his PhD on resistance to multiple herbicides in annual ryegrass (
In response to resistant weeds, farmers are hand-weeding, using tractors to turn over soil between crops, and using other herbicides in addition to glyphosate.
Monsanto scientists have found that some resistant weeds have as many as 160 extra copies of a gene called EPSPS, the enzyme glyphosate disrupts.[196]
Palmer amaranth
In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of
Conyza species
Ryegrass
Glyphosate-resistant
Johnson grass
Glyphosate-resistant Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) has been found in Argentina as well as Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi.[208]
Monarch butterfly populations
Use of glyphosate and other herbicides like
Legal status
Glyphosate was first approved for use in the 1970s, and as of 2010 was labelled for use in 130 countries.[19]: 2
In 2017 Vandenberg et al. cited a 100-fold increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicides from 1974 to 2014, the possibility that herbicide mixtures likely have effects that are not predicted by studying glyphosate alone, and reliance of current safety assessments on studies done over 30 years ago. They recommended that current safety standards be updated, writing that the current standards "may fail to protect public health or the environment."[214]
Europe
In April 2014, the legislature of the Netherlands passed legislation prohibiting sale of glyphosate to individuals for use at home; commercial sales were not affected.[215]
In June 2015, the
A vote on the relicensing of glyphosate in the EU stalled in March 2016. Member states France, Sweden, and the Netherlands objected to the renewal.[220] A vote to reauthorize on a temporary basis failed in June 2016[221] but at the last minute the license was extended for 18 months until the end of 2017.[222]
On 27 November 2017, in the EU Council a majority of eighteen member states voted in favor of permitting the use of glyphosate for five more years. A qualified majority of sixteen states representing 65% of EU citizens was required to pass the law.[223] The German Minister of Agriculture, Christian Schmidt, unexpectedly voted in favor while the German coalition government was internally divided on the issue which usually results in Germany abstaining.[224]
In December 2018, attempts were made to reopen the decision to license the weed-killer. These were condemned by Conservative MEPs, who said the proposal was politically motivated and flew in the face of scientific evidence.[225]
In March 2019, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ordered the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to release all carcinogenicity and toxicity pesticide industry studies on glyphosate to the general public.[226]
In March 2019, the
In June 2019, Deutsche Bahn and Swiss Federal Railways announced that glyphosate and other commonly used herbicides for weed eradication along railway tracks will be phased out by 2025, while more environmentally sound methods for vegetation control are implemented.[228][229]
In July 2019, the Austrian parliament voted to ban glyphosate in Austria.[230]
In September 2019, the German Environment Ministry announced that the use of glyphosate will be banned from the end of 2023. The use of glyphosate-based herbicides will be reduced starting from 2020.[231]
The assessment process for an approval of glyphosate in the European Union will begin in December 2019. France, Hungary, the Netherlands and Sweden will jointly assess the application dossiers of the producers. The draft report of the assessment group will then be peer-reviewed by the EFSA before the current approval expires in December 2022.[232]
The date has since been pushed back, partially due to very high interest and input in the participation process, with the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) even calling it an “unprecedented number”.[233] Because the EFSA has to review all these 2400 comments and almost 400 responses, the process is expected to take longer. The created document is under extra review by the specially formed Glyphosate Renewal Group (GRG) and the Assessment Group on Glyphosate (AGG), the panel consisting of the four mentioned member states. With their responses now being scheduled for September 2022, the consultations with member states are supposed to be held by the very end of 2022.[234][235] This would allow to finish the final assessment by mid-2023 and pass it on to further legislature to decide.
In November 2023, glyphosate received 10 year renewed authorization for use in the EU.[236]
Other countries
In September 2013, the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador approved legislation to ban 53 agrochemicals, including glyphosate; the ban on glyphosate was set to begin in 2015.[237][238][239]
In the United States, the state of Minnesota preempts local laws that attempt to ban glyphosate. In 2015 there was an attempt to pass legislation at the state level that would repeal that preemption.[240]
In May 2015, the President of Sri Lanka banned the use and import of glyphosate, effective immediately.[241][242] However, in May 2018 the Sri Lankan government decided to re-authorize its use in the plantation sector.[243]
In May 2015, Bermuda blocked importation on all new orders of glyphosate-based herbicides for a temporary suspension awaiting outcomes of research.[244]
In May 2015, Colombia announced that it would stop using glyphosate by October 2015 in the destruction of illegal plantations of coca, the raw ingredient for cocaine. Farmers have complained that the aerial fumigation has destroyed entire fields of coffee and other legal produce.[71]
In April 2019, Vietnam's Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development banned the use of glyphosate throughout the country.[245]
In August 2020, Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced that glyphosate will be gradually phased out of use in Mexico by late 2024.[246]
Thailand's National Hazardous Substances Committee decided to ban the use of glyphosate in October 2019[247] but reversed the decision in November 2019.[248]
After a court-ruling in 2018, glyphosate was temporarily banned in Brazil. This decision was later overturned, causing major criticism by the federal agency of health (Anvisa). This comes, as the latest evaluations declared glyphosate as noncarcinogenic. Since all carcinogenic agrichemicals are automatically banned in the country, this allowed the continuous use.[249]
In New Zealand, glyphosate is an approved herbicide for killing weeds,[250] with the most popular brand being Roundup.[250][251] Genetically modified crops designed to resist glyphosate are absent in New Zealand.[250] Crops applied with glyphosate must be regulated under the HSNO Act 1996 and ACVM Act 1997.[250][252] Legal status for glyphosate use in New Zealand is approved for commercial and personal use.[251] In 2021, exports of New Zealand honey were found to contain traces of glyphosate, causing some concern to Japanese importers.[253][254]
Legal cases
Lawsuits claiming liability for cancer
Since 2018, in a number of court cases in the United States, plaintiffs have argued that their cancer was caused by exposure to glyphosate in glyphosate-based herbicides produced by Monsanto/Bayer. Defendant Bayer has paid out over $9.6 billion in judgements and settlements in these cases. Bayer has also won at least 10 cases, successfully arguing that their glyphosate-based herbicides were not responsible for the plaintiff's cancer.[255]
Advertising controversies
In 2016, a lawsuit was filed against
Trade dumping allegations
United States companies have cited trade issues with glyphosate being dumped into western world market areas by Chinese companies, and a formal dispute was filed in 2010.[258][259]
Misinformation campaigns
Glyphosate has become a locus of campaigning and misinformation by anti-GMO activists because of its association with genetically-modified glyphosate-resistant crops.[260]
The US politician
See also
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External links
- Glyphosate in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)
- Glyphosate trimesium in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)
- Glyphosate, isopropylamine salt in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)
- Glyphosate, potassium salt in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)