Golden-crowned sifaka
Golden-crowned sifaka | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Primates |
Suborder: | Strepsirrhini |
Family: | Indriidae |
Genus: | Propithecus |
Species: | P. tattersalli
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Binomial name | |
Propithecus tattersalli Simons, 1988
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Distribution of P. tattersalli[1] |
The golden-crowned sifaka or Tattersall's sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli) is a medium-sized lemur characterized by mostly white fur, prominent furry ears, and a golden-orange crown. It is one of the smallest sifakas (genus Propithecus), weighing around 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) and measuring approximately 90 cm (35 in) from head to tail. Like all sifakas, it is a vertical clinger and leaper, and its diet includes mostly seeds and leaves. The golden-crowned sifaka is named after its discoverer, Ian Tattersall, who first spotted the species in 1974. However, it was not formally described until 1988, after a research team led by Elwyn L. Simons observed and captured some specimens for captive breeding. The golden-crowned sifaka most closely resembles the western forest sifakas of the P. verreauxi group, yet its karyotype suggests a closer relationship with the P. diadema group of eastern forest sifakas. Despite the similarities with both groups, more recent studies of its karyotype support its classification as a distinct species.
Found in
The small range and fragmented populations of this species weigh heavily on its survival.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The golden-crowned or Tattersall's sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli), known locally as ankomba malandy (or akomba malandy, meaning "white lemur"),[3][4][5] was discovered in 1974 north of Vohemar in northeast Madagascar by Ian Tattersall, who observed but did not capture the animal.[3][4] Unsure of its classification, Tattersall provisionally considered it a variant of the silky sifaka in his 1982 book, The Primates of Madagascar,[3][6] citing its mostly off-white to yellowish fur, but also noting its uncharacteristic orange crown patch and tufted ears.[4] Driven by a report in 1986 that the forest where Tattersall had observed this unique sifaka was contracted to be clear-cut for charcoal production, a research team from the Duke Lemur Center, led by Elwyn L. Simons, obtained permits to capture specimens for a captive breeding program.[4] Simons and his team were the first to capture and observe the golden-crowned sifaka,[7] formally describing it as a new species in 1988 and naming it in honor of Tattersall.[3][4] The specimens were found 6 to 7 km (3.7 to 4.3 mi) northeast of Daraina, a village in the northeast corner of Madagascar.[4][8]
There have been conflicting studies regarding the taxonomic status of the golden-crowned sifaka.
In 1997, comparisons of repeated DNA sequences within the family
Anatomy and physiology
The golden-crowned sifaka is one of the smallest sifaka species with a weight of 3.4 to 3.6 kg (7.5 to 7.9 lb), a head-body length of 45 to 47 cm (18 to 19 in), a tail length of 42 to 47 cm (17 to 19 in), and total length of 87 to 94 cm (34 to 37 in).[3][14][15] It is comparable in size to the sifakas inhabiting the southern and western dry forests, such as Coquerel's sifaka, the crowned sifaka, Von der Decken's sifaka, and Verreaux's sifaka. It has a coat of moderately long, creamy-white fur with a golden tint, dark black or chocolate-brown fur on its neck and throat, pale orange fur on the tops of its legs and forelimbs, a white tail and hindlimbs, and a characteristic bright orange-gold crown.[3] It is the only sifaka with prominent tufts of white fur protruding from its ears,[10] making its head appear somewhat triangular and distinctive in appearance.[14] Its eyes are orange, and its face is black and mostly hairless,[3] with dark gray-black fur with white hairs stretching from beneath the eyes to the cheeks.[14] Its snout is blunt and rounded, and its broad nose helps to distinguish it from other sifakas. Occasionally the bridge of the nose will have a patch of white fur. Similar to other sifakas, this arboreal animal has long, strong legs that enable it to cling and leap between tree trunks and branches.[3]
Geographic range and habitat
The golden-crowned sifaka lives in dry deciduous, gallery, and semi-evergreen forests and is found at altitudes up to 500 m (1,640 ft), though it seems to prefer lower elevations.[15][14] Surveys have shown it to be limited to highly fragmented forests surrounding the town of Daraina in an area encircled by the Manambato and Loky Rivers in northeastern Madagascar.[15] The golden-crowned sifaka has one of the smallest geographic ranges of all indriid lemur species.[3][16] Out of 75 forest fragments studied by researchers, its presence could be definitively reported in only 44, totaling 44,125 ha (109,040 acres; 170.37 sq mi). This study, published in 2002, also estimated the total species population and observed population densities. Home range size varied between 0.18 and 0.29 km2 (0.069 and 0.112 sq mi) per group. With an average group size of five individuals, the population density ranged between 17 and 28 individuals per km2.[15] Another home range size estimate of 0.09 to 0.12 km2 (0.035 to 0.046 sq mi) has also been suggested with a population density range of 10 and 23 individuals per km2.[3] The forested area available to the species within its desired elevation range was estimated at 360 km2 (140 sq mi), yielding an estimated population of 6,120–10,080 and a breeding population between 2,520 and 3,960 individuals.[15] However, a study published in 2010 using line transect data from 2006 and 2008 in five major forest fragments yielded an estimated population of 18,000 individuals.[17]
The species is
Behavior
The golden-crowned sifaka is primarily active during the day (
When stressed, the golden-crowned sifaka emits grunting vocalizations as well as repeated "churrs" that escalate into a high-
Diet
The diet of the golden-crowned sifaka consists of a wide variety of plants—as many as 80 species—whose availability varies based on the season.
A study in 1993 showed variability and flexibility in feeding preferences between three research sites around Daraina. Plant species preferences (measured in feeding time) changed between wetter, intermediate, and drier forests:[8][20]
Wetter sites | Intermediate sites | Driest sites | |
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Favored plant families | Fabaceae Sapindaceae Anacardiaceae Myrtaceae Annonaceae |
Fabaceae Anacardiaceae Olacaceae Araliaceae Malvaceae |
Fabaceae Sapindaceae Anacardiaceae Ebenaceae Combretaceae |
Favored plant species | Cynometra sp. (Fabaceae) Filicium longifolium (Sapindaceae) Eugenia sp. (Myrtaceae) Cordyla madagascariensis (Fabaceae) Xylopia flexuosa (Annonaceae) |
Cynometra sp. (Fabaceae) Baudouinia fluggeiformis (Fabaceae) Albizia boivini (Fabaceae) Pongamiopsis sp. (Fabaceae) Olax lanceolata (Olacaceae) |
Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)
|
Social organization
The social structure of the golden-crowned sifaka is very similar to that of Verreaux's sifaka, both averaging between five and six individuals per group, with a range between three and ten.[8][15][19] Unlike the Verreaux's sifaka, group sex ratios are more evenly balanced,[6] consisting of two or more members of both sexes.[14][19] Females are dominant within the group,[19] and only one female breeds successfully each season. Males will roam between groups during the mating season.[14]
Because of their smaller home ranges relative to other sifakas, group encounters are slightly more common, occurring a few times a month.[8] It has been noted that the temperament of the golden-crowned sifaka is more volatile than that of other sifaka species and, in the case of a dispute, this animal frequently emits a grunt-like vocalization that seems to signal annoyance.[4] Aggressive interactions between groups are generally non-physical but include loud growling, territorial marking, chasing, and ritualistic leaping displays.[8][21] Same-sexed individuals act most aggressively towards each other during such encounters.[8] Scent marking is the most common form of territorial defense, with scent marks acting as "signposts" to demarcate territorial boundaries.[8][15] Females use glands in the genital regions ("anogenital") while males use both anogenital and chest glands.[8]
Reproduction
The golden-crowned sifaka is a seasonal breeder, often mating during the last week of January.[3][20] Its gestation period is a little less than six months, and its lactation period is five months. Research has indicated that reproduction is strategically linked with forest seasonality.[20] Gestation starts in the later part of the wet season (late January),[20] and continues for approximately 170 days.[14] Parturition occurs in the middle of the dry season (late June or July).[3][20] Weaning occurs during the middle of the wet season, in December, when an abundance of immature leaves is available.[3][20] It is thought that such reproductive timing exists to ensure adequate protein intake from the immature leaves for both mother and child at the end of the lactation period.[20]
Females reproduce once every two years. Infants are born with little hair and initially cling to their mother's belly. As they mature, they begin to ride on her back. Following weaning, riding on the back is only tolerated for short durations, particularly when the group is alerted to the presence of a predator. By one year of age, the juveniles are 70% of their full adult body weight.[14] Infant mortality is high in this species.[22] Upon reaching sexual maturity, males leave their natal group and transfer to neighboring social groups.[6] Observations by researchers and reports from local people indicate that this species will jump to the ground and cross more than 200 m (660 ft) of grassland to reach nearby forest patches. This suggests that forest fragmentation may not completely isolate separated populations.[15]
Predators and parasites
The only predator known to target this species is the
Human interactions
While the golden-crowned sifaka faces few biological threats, such as predation, it faces many significant human-caused (
Malagasy farmers continue to use fire to clear out agricultural land and pasture for livestock, promoting grass growth while inhibiting forest regeneration. The fires sometimes burn out of control and destroy forest edges along with the natural flora, increasing the damage even further than intended.[15] Due to the nature of Madagascar's geology and soil, tavy also depletes the fertility of the soil, accelerating the crop rotation rate and necessitating expansion into primary forests.[25]
Although coal is the preferred cooking fuel of the Malagasy people, the most affordable and prominent source of energy is timber, known as kitay. Wood is also used as a primary building material, only adding further incentive to remove trees from the forest. With the depletion of dead wood from the forest patches, the people have begun to remove young, healthy trees. This is seen most commonly in areas closest to villages. Although the shapes and sizes of forest fragments around the Daraina region have been mostly stable for 50 years prior to a study in 2002, the six years preceding the study had seen 5% of the small- to medium-sized forest fragments disappear due to increased human encroachment.[15]
A newly emergent threat facing the golden-crowned sifaka is hunting by the gold miners moving into the region's forests.[3][5] Although mining operations are small scale, the practice of gold mining takes a toll on the forested regions because deep mining pits are often dug near or underneath large trees, disturbing the extensive root systems and ultimately killing the trees in the area.[15] The influx of gold miners has also increased poaching pressure. Although the species is protected from hunting by local fady (taboo) around Daraina, due to their likeness to humans, and by Malagasy law,[5][22] the gold miners who have immigrated to the area have begun to hunt the golden-crowned sifaka as a source of bushmeat.[3] In 1993, David M. Meyers, a researcher who has studied the golden-crowned sifaka, speculated that if bushmeat hunting were to escalate, the species would go extinct in less than ten years since it is easy to find and not fearful of humans.[22] Indeed, bushmeat hunting by people from nearby Ambilobe has already extirpated at least one isolated population.[16]
Conservation
Because studies have shown that the golden-crowned sifaka are most likely to be found in large forest fragments (greater than 1,000 ha (2,500 acres; 3.9 sq mi)), the species is thought to be sensitive to
The area inhabited by the golden-crowned sifaka is also an important agricultural and economical resource for the human population.[27] Suggested conservation action aimed at protecting this species and its habitat has focused on offering varying degrees of protection to forest fragments in the region, allowing human activity and resource extraction in areas that have less conservation potential while strictly protecting areas critical to the species' survival. In 2002, none of the forested areas that the golden-crowned sifaka inhabits were part of a formally protected national park or reserve.[15] A conservation study from 1989 called for the creation of a national park that includes the forest of Binara as well as the dry forests to the north of Daraina.[27] A more recent study from 2002 proposed a network of protected forest areas including areas outside of the village of Daraina, forests north of the Monambato River, and the northern forests that constitute the species' northern reservoir.[15] In 2005, Fanamby, a Malagasy non-governmental organization (NGO), teamed up with Conservation International to create a 20,000-hectare (49,000-acre; 77 sq mi) protected area that both Association Fanamby and the Ministry of Water and Forests manage.[3] As of 2008, only ten forest patches that could support viable populations remained, according to the IUCN.[1]
Only one captive population of golden-crowned sifakas has been represented in a zoological collection.[1] Building on a successful record of maintaining a viable captive Verreaux's sifaka population, the Duke Lemur Center (DLC) in Durham, North Carolina, requested and obtained permission from the government of Madagascar to capture and export this (then) unknown species for captive breeding. Plans were also made to establish a captive breeding program at the Ivoloina Forestry Station, now known as Parc Ivoloina. In November 1987, during the same expedition that resulted in the formal description of the species, two males and two females were caught and measured. Five others were also caught, but were released because they were juvenile males.[4] In July 1988, a golden-crowned sifaka was born in captivity at the DLC.[5] However, the captive population was small and not viable for long-term breeding,[16][28] and captive sifakas have proven difficult to maintain due to their specialized dietary needs.[28] The last captive individual died in 2008. Despite the loss of its small colony after 20 years, DLC believes that establishment of a captive population for conservation-oriented captive breeding purposes could provide an important second level of protection, particularly if habitat protection measures are unsuccessful.[29]
Effects of the 2009 political crisis
As a result of the political crisis that began in 2009 and the resulting breakdown of law and order in Madagascar, poachers have hunted lemurs in the Daraina area and sold them to local restaurants as a delicacy. Pictures of dead lemurs that had been smoked for transport were taken by Fanamby and released by Conservation International in August 2009. The lemurs in the photographs included the endangered golden-crowned sifaka, as well as crowned lemurs.[30] Around the time the photographs were released, 15 people were arrested for selling smoked lemurs, which were bought from hunters for 1,000 ariary, or around US$0.53, and then sold in restaurants for 8,000 ariary (US$4.20).[30][31] Russell Mittermeier, president of Conservation International, said that the arrests would not end the poaching since the poachers would "just get slaps on the wrist".[31]
References
- ^ a b c d e Semel, B.; Semel, M.; Salmona, J.; Heriniaina, R. (2020). "Propithecus tattersalli". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T18352A115571806. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
- ^ "Checklist of CITES Species". CITES. UNEP-WCMC. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Mittermeier et al. 2006, pp. 373–375.
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- ^ a b c d e f Harcourt 1990, pp. 210–213.
- ^ a b c d Richard 2003, pp. 1345–1348.
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- ^ Yoder 2003, pp. 1242–1247.
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- ^ a b c Simons 1997, pp. 142–166.
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- ^ Mittermeier et al. 2006, pp. 270–271.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Sussman 2003, pp. 190–192.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Meyers & Wright 1993, pp. 179–192.
- ^ Nowak 1999, pp. 86–89.
- ^ ISSN 0343-3528. Archived from the original(PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
- ^ JSTOR 20095494.
- ^ Irwin, M.T.; Raharison, J.-L. (2009). "A review of the endoparasites of the lemurs of Madagascar" (PDF). Malagasy Nature. 2: 66–93.
- ^ a b Mittermeier et al. 2006, pp. 52–84.
- ^ Mittermeier, R.A.; Konstant, W.R.; Rylands, A.B. (2000). "The World's Top 25 Most Endangered Primates" (PDF). Neotropical Primates. 8 (1): 49.
- ^ a b Meyers, D.M.; Ratsirarson, J. (1989). "Distribution and conservation of two endangered sifakas in northern Madagascar". Primate Conservation. 10: 81–86.
- ^ ISSN 0343-3528. Archived from the original(PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
- ^ "Golden-crowned Sifaka". Duke Lemur Center. Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2010.
- ^ a b Bourton, J. (20 August 2009). "Lemurs butchered in Madagascar". BBC Earth News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 3 June 2010.
- ^ a b Platt, J. (21 August 2009). "Lemur poaching on the rise due to unrest in Madagascar". ScientificAmerican.com. Nature America, Inc. Retrieved 3 June 2010.
- Books cited
- Garbutt, N. (2007). Mammals of Madagascar, A Complete Guide. A&C Black Publishers. OCLC 154689042.
- Harcourt, C. (1990). "Introduction". In Thornback, J. (ed.). Lemurs of Madagascar and the Comoros: The IUCN Red Data Book. World Conservation Union. OCLC 28425691.
- Irwin, M.T. (2006). "Chapter 14: Ecologically Enigmatic Lemurs: The Sifakas of the Eastern Forests (Propithecus candidus, P. diadema, P. edwardsi, P. perrieri, and P. tattersalli)". In Gould, L.; Sauther, M.L. (eds.). Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation. Springer. pp. 305–326. OCLC 209925660.
- Meyers, D.M.; Wright, P.C. (1993). "Resource tracking: food availability and Propithecus seasonal reproduction" (PDF). In Kappeler, P.M.; Ganzhorn, J.U. (eds.). Lemur social systems and their ecological basis. Plenum Press. pp. 179–192. OCLC 28722447. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-07-19.
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- Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Primates of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 86. OCLC 41143087.
- Richard, A. (2003). "Propithecus, Sifakas". In Goodman, S.M.; Benstead, J.P. (eds.). The Natural History of Madagascar. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1345–1348. OCLC 51447871.
- Simons, E.L. (1997). "Chapter 6: Lemurs: Old and New". In Goodman, S.M.; Patterson, B.D. (eds.). Natural Change and Human Impact in Madagascar. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 142–166. OCLC 35620388.
- Sussman, R.W. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure. Pearson Custom Publishing. OCLC 42318137.
- Yoder, A.D. (2003). "Phylogeny of the Lemurs". In Goodman, S.M.; Benstead, J.P. (eds.). The Natural History of Madagascar. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1242–1247. OCLC 51447871.