Gondwana
Zealandia | |
Tectonic plates | African Plate Antarctic Plate Indo-Australian Plate South American Plate |
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Gondwana (
Gondwana was formed by the
Regions that were part of Gondwana shared
Name
The continent of Gondwana was named by the Austrian scientist Eduard Suess, after the region in central India of the same name, which is derived from Sanskrit for "forest of the Gonds".[6] The name had been previously used in a geological context, first by H. B. Medlicott in 1872,[7] from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences (Permian-Triassic) are also described.
Some scientists prefer the term "Gondwanaland" to make a clear distinction between the region and the supercontinent.[8]
Formation
The assembly of Gondwana was a protracted process during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic, which remains incompletely understood because of the lack of paleo-magnetic data. Several
The last stages of Gondwanan assembly overlapped with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean between Laurentia and western Gondwana.[11] During this interval, the Cambrian explosion occurred. Laurentia was docked against the western shores of a united Gondwana for a brief period near the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary, forming the short-lived and still disputed supercontinent Pannotia.[12]
The
The continent Australia/Mawson was still separated from India, eastern Africa, and Kalahari by c. 600 Ma, when most of western Gondwana had already been amalgamated. By c. 550 Ma, India had reached its Gondwanan position, which initiated the Kuunga orogeny (also known as the Pinjarra orogeny). Meanwhile, on the other side of the newly forming Africa, Kalahari collided with Congo and Rio de la Plata which closed the Adamastor Ocean. c. 540–530 Ma, the closure of the Mozambique Ocean brought India next to Australia–East Antarctica, and both North and South China were in proximity to Australia.[14]
As the rest of Gondwana formed, a complex series of orogenic events assembled the eastern parts of Gondwana (eastern Africa, Arabian-Nubian Shield, Seychelles, Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, East Antarctica, and Australia) c. 750 to 530 Ma. First the Arabian-Nubian Shield collided with eastern Africa (in the Kenya-Tanzania region) in the East African Orogeny c.750 to 620 Ma. Then Australia and East Antarctica were merged with the remaining Gondwana c. 570 to 530 Ma in the Kuunga Orogeny.[15]
The later Malagasy orogeny at about 550–515 Mya affected Madagascar, eastern East Africa and southern India. In it, Neoproterozoic India collided with the already combined Azania and Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block, suturing along the Mozambique Belt.[16]
The 18,000 km-long (11,000 mi) Terra Australis Orogen developed along Gondwana's western, southern, and eastern margins.[17] Proto-Gondwanan Cambrian arc belts from this margin have been found in eastern Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica. Though these belts formed a continuous arc chain, the direction of subduction was different between the Australian-Tasmanian and New Zealand-Antarctica arc segments.[18]
Peri-Gondwana development: Paleozoic rifts and accretions
Many terranes were accreted to Eurasia during Gondwana's existence, but the Cambrian or Precambrian origin of many of these terranes remains uncertain. For example, some Palaeozoic terranes and microcontinents that now make up Central Asia, often called the "Kazakh" and "Mongolian terranes", were progressively amalgamated into the continent Kazakhstania in the Late Silurian. Whether these blocks originated on the shores of Gondwana is not known.[19]
In the Early Palaeozoic, the Armorican terrane, which today form large parts of France, was part of either Peri-Gondwana or core Gondwana; the Rheic Ocean closed in front of it and the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean opened behind it. Precambrian rocks from the Iberian Peninsula suggest that it, too, formed part of core Gondwana before its detachment as an orocline in the Variscan orogeny close to the Carboniferous–Permian boundary.[20]
South-east Asia was made of Gondwanan and
Gondwana's long, northern margin remained a mostly passive margin throughout the Palaeozoic. The Early Permian opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean along this margin produced a long series of terranes, many of which were and still are being deformed in the
Southwestern accretions
During the Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic phase of the
Gondwana as part of Pangaea: Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic
Gondwana and Laurasia formed the Pangaea supercontinent during the Carboniferous. Pangaea began to break up in the Mid-Jurassic when the Central Atlantic opened.[31]
In the western end of Pangaea, the collision between Gondwana and Laurasia closed the Rheic and Palaeo-Tethys oceans. The obliquity of this closure resulted in the docking of some northern terranes in the Marathon, Ouachita, Alleghanian, and Variscan orogenies, respectively. Southern terranes, such as Chortis and Oaxaca, on the other hand, remained largely unaffected by the collision along the southern shores of Laurentia. Some Peri-Gondwanan terranes, such as Yucatán and Florida, were buffered from collisions by major promontories. Other terranes, such as Carolina and Meguma, were directly involved in the collision. The final collision resulted in the Variscan-Appalachian Mountains, stretching from present-day Mexico to southern Europe. Meanwhile, Baltica collided with Siberia and Kazakhstania which resulted in the Uralian orogeny and Laurasia. Pangaea was finally amalgamated in the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian, but the oblique forces continued until Pangaea began to rift in the Triassic.[32]
In the eastern end, collisions occurred slightly later. The
The formation of Pangaea and its mountains had a tremendous impact on global climate and sea levels, which resulted in glaciations and continent-wide sedimentation. In North America, the base of the Absaroka sequence coincides with the Alleghanian and Ouachita orogenies and are indicative of a large-scale change in the mode of deposition far away from the Pangaean orogenies. Ultimately, these changes contributed to the Permian–Triassic extinction event and left large deposits of hydrocarbons, coal, evaporite, and metals.[34]
The break-up of Pangaea began with the Central Atlantic magmatic province (CAMP) between South America, Africa, North America, and Europe. CAMP covered more than seven million square kilometres over a few million years, reached its peak at c. 200 Ma, and coincided with the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event.[35] The reformed Gondwanan continent was not precisely the same as that which had existed before Pangaea formed; for example, most of Florida and southern Georgia and Alabama is underlain by rocks that were originally part of Gondwana, but this region stayed attached to North America when the Central Atlantic opened.[36]
Break-up
Mesozoic
Antarctica, the centre of the supercontinent, shared boundaries with all other Gondwana continents and the fragmentation of Gondwana propagated clockwise around it. The break-up was the result of the eruption of the Karoo-Ferrar igneous province, one of the Earth's most extensive large igneous provinces (LIP) c. 200 to 170 Ma, but the oldest magnetic anomalies between South America, Africa, and Antarctica are found in what is now the southern Weddell Sea where initial break-up occurred during the Jurassic c. 180 to 160 Ma.[37]
Opening of western Indian Ocean
Gondwana began to break up in the early Jurassic following the extensive and fast emplacement of the Karoo-Ferrar flood basalts c. 184 Ma. Before the Karoo plume initiated rifting between Africa and Antarctica, it separated a series of smaller continental blocks from Gondwana's southern, Proto-Pacific margin (along what is now the Transantarctic Mountains): the Antarctic Peninsula, Marie Byrd Land, Zealandia, and Thurston Island; the Falkland Islands and Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains (in Antarctica) were rotated 90° in opposite directions; and South America south of the Gastre Fault (often referred to as Patagonia) was pushed westward.[38] The history of the Africa-Antarctica break-up can be studied in great detail in the fracture zones and magnetic anomalies flanking the Southwest Indian Ridge.[39]
The Madagascar block and the Mascarene Plateau, stretching from the Seychelles to Réunion, were broken off India, causing Madagascar and Insular India to be separate landmasses: elements of this break-up nearly coincide with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The India–Madagascar–Seychelles separations appear to coincide with the eruption of the Deccan basalts, whose eruption site may survive as the Réunion hotspot. The Seychelles and the Maldives are now separated by the Central Indian Ridge.
During the initial break-up in the Early Jurassic a
Opening of eastern Indian Ocean
East Gondwana, comprising Antarctica, Madagascar, India, and Australia, began to separate from Africa. East Gondwana then began to break up c. 132.5 to 96 Ma when India moved northwest from Australia-Antarctica.[42] The Indian Plate and the Australian Plate are now separated by the Capricorn Plate and its diffuse boundaries.[43] During the opening of the Indian Ocean, the Kerguelen hotspot first formed the Kerguelen Plateau on the Antarctic Plate c. 118 to 95 Ma and then the Ninety East Ridge on the Indian Plate at c. 100 Ma.[44] The Kerguelen Plateau and the Broken Ridge, the southern end of the Ninety East Ridge, are now separated by the Southeast Indian Ridge.
Separation between Australia and East Antarctica began c. 132 Ma with seafloor spreading occurring c. 96 Ma. A shallow seaway developed over the South Tasman Rise during the Early Cenozoic and as oceanic crust started to separate the continents during the Eocene c. 35.5 Ma global ocean temperature dropped significantly.[45] A dramatic shift from arc- to rift magmatism c. 100 Ma separated Zealandia, including New Zealand, the Campbell Plateau, Chatham Rise, Lord Howe Rise, Norfolk Ridge, and New Caledonia, from West Antarctica c. 84 Ma.[46]
Opening of South Atlantic Ocean
The opening of the South Atlantic Ocean divided West Gondwana (South America and Africa), but there is a considerable debate over the exact timing of this break-up. Rifting propagated from south to north along Triassic–Early Jurassic lineaments, but intra-continental rifts also began to develop within both continents in Jurassic–Cretaceous sedimentary basins, subdividing each continent into three sub-plates. Rifting began c. 190 Ma at Falkland latitudes, forcing Patagonia to move relative to the still static remainder of South America and Africa, and this westward movement lasted until the Early Cretaceous 126.7 Ma. From there rifting propagated northward during the Late Jurassic c. 150 Ma or Early Cretaceous c. 140 Ma most likely forcing dextral movements between sub-plates on either side. South of the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise the Paraná and Etendeka magmatics resulted in further ocean-floor spreading c. 130 to 135 Ma and the development of rifts systems on both continents, including the Central African Rift System and the Central African Shear Zone which lasted until c. 85 Ma. At Brazilian latitudes spreading is more difficult to assess because of the lack of palaeo-magnetic data, but rifting occurred in Nigeria at the Benue Trough c. 118 Ma. North of the Equator the rifting began after 120.4 Ma and continued until c. 100 to 96 Ma.[47]
Early Andean orogeny
The first phases of
Cenozoic
Insular India began to collide with Asia circa 70 Ma, forming the Indian subcontinent, since which more than 1,400 km (870 mi) of crust has been absorbed by the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. During the Cenozoic, the orogen resulted in the construction of the Tibetan Plateau between the Tethyan Himalayas in the south and the Kunlun and Qilian mountains in the north.[51]
Later, South America was connected to North America via the Isthmus of Panama, cutting off a circulation of warm water and thereby making the Arctic colder,[52] as well as allowing the Great American Interchange.
The break-up of Gondwana can be said to continue in eastern Africa at the
Australia–Antarctica separation
In the Early Cenozoic, Australia was still connected to Antarctica c. 35–40° south of its current location and both continents were largely unglaciated. A rift between the two developed but remained an embayment until the Eocene-Oligocene boundary when the Circumpolar Current developed and the glaciation of Antarctica began.[54]
Australia was warm and wet during the Palaeocene and dominated by rainforest. The opening of the Tasman Gateway at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (33 Ma) resulted in abrupt cooling but the Oligocene became a period of high rainfall with swamps in southeast Australia. During the Miocene, a warm and humid climate developed with pockets of rainforests in central Australia, but before the end of the period, colder and drier climate severely reduced this rainforest. A brief period of increased rainfall in the Pliocene was followed by drier climate which favoured grassland. Since then, the fluctuation between wet interglacial periods and dry glacial periods has developed into the present arid regime. Australia has thus experienced various climate changes over a 15-million-year period with a gradual decrease in precipitation.[55]
The Tasman Gateway between Australia and Antarctica began to open c. 40 to 30 Ma. Palaeontological evidence indicates the
Since the Eocene, the northward movement of the Australian Plate has resulted in an
Biogeography
The adjective "Gondwanan" is in common use in biogeography when referring to patterns of distribution of living organisms, typically when the organisms are restricted to two or more of the now-discontinuous regions that were once part of Gondwana, including the Antarctic flora.[8] For example, the plant family Proteaceae, known from all continents in the Southern Hemisphere, has a "Gondwanan distribution" and is often described as an archaic, or relict, lineage. The distributions in the Proteaceae is, nevertheless, the result of both Gondwanan rafting and later oceanic dispersal.[60]
Post-Cambrian diversification
During the
By the end of the Ordovician,
West Gondwana drifted north during the
The closure of the Rheic Ocean and the formation of Pangaea in the Carboniferous resulted in the rerouting of ocean currents that initiated an Ice House period. As Gondwana began to rotate clockwise, Australia shifted south to more temperate latitudes. An ice cap initially covered most of southern Africa and South America but spread to eventually cover most of the supercontinent, save for northernmost Africa-South America and eastern Australia. Giant lycopod and horsetail forests continued to evolve in tropical Laurasia together with a diversified assemblage of true insects. In Gondwana, in contrast, ice and, in Australia, volcanism decimated the Devonian flora to a low-diversity seed fern flora – the pteridophytes were increasingly replaced by the gymnosperms which were to dominate until the Mid-Cretaceous. Australia, however, was still located near the Equator during the Early Carboniferous, and during this period, temnospondyl and lepospondyl amphibians and the first amniote reptilians evolved, all closely related to the Laurasian fauna, but spreading ice eventually drove these animals away from Gondwana entirely.[66]
The Gondwana ice sheet melted, and sea levels dropped during the Permian and Triassic global warming. During this period, the extinct
Modern diversification
During the Mid- to Late Triassic, hot-house conditions coincided with a peak in biodiversity – the end-Permian extinction was enormous and so was the radiation that followed. Two families of conifers,
The brief period of icehouse conditions during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event had a dramatic impact on dinosaurs but left plants largely unaffected. The Jurassic was mostly one of hot-house conditions and, while vertebrates managed to diversify in this environment, plants have left little evidence of such development, apart from Cheiroleidiacean conifers and Caytoniales and other groups of seed ferns. In terms of biomass, the Jurassic flora was dominated by conifer families and other gymnosperms that had evolved during the Triassic. The Pteridophytes that had dominated during the Palaeozoic were now marginalised, except for ferns. In contrast to Laurentia, very few insect fossils have been found in Gondwana, to a considerable extent because of widespread deserts and volcanism. While plants had a cosmopolitan distribution, dinosaurs evolved and diversified in a pattern that reflects the Jurassic break-up of Pangaea.[69]
The Cretaceous saw the arrival of the
Dinosaurs continued to prosper but, as the angiosperm diversified, conifers, bennettitaleans and pentoxylaleans disappeared from Gondwana c. 115 Ma together with the specialised herbivorous ornithischians, whilst generalist browsers, such as several families of sauropodomorph Saurischia, prevailed. The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event killed off all dinosaurs except birds, but plant evolution in Gondwana was hardly affected.[70] Gondwanatheria is an extinct group of non-therian mammals with a Gondwanan distribution (South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Zealandia and Antarctica) during the Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene.[71] Xenarthra and Afrotheria, two placental clades, are of Gondwanan origin and probably began to evolve separately c. 105 Ma when Africa and South America separated.[72]
The
See also
- Continental drift, the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other
- Australasian realm
- Gondwana Rainforests of Australia
- The Great Escarpment of Southern Africa
- Plate tectonics, a theory which describes the large-scale motions of Earth's lithosphere
- South Polar dinosaurs, which proliferated during the Early Cretaceous (145–100 Mya) while Australia was still linked to Antarctica to form East Gondwana
- Gondwana Research, a scholarly journal including Gondwana among its emphases
References
Notes
- ^ "Gondwana". Dictionary.com. Lexico Publishing Group. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
- ^ Meert & Van der Voo 1997, Abstract
- ^ Torsvik & Cocks 2013, Abstract
- S2CID 140601854.
- ^ "Gondwanaland". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
- .
- ^ Suess 1885, p. 768: "Wir nennen es Gondwána-Land, nach der gemeinsamen alten Gondwána-Flora, … "(We name it Gondwána-Land, after the common ancient flora of Gondwána …)
- ^ a b McLoughlin 2001, Gondwana or Gondwanaland?, pp. 272–273
- ^ Meert 2003, Fig. 10, p. 19
- ^ Meert & Van der Voo 1997, Introduction, pp. 223–226
- ^ Miashita & Yamamoto 1996
- ^ Meert & Van der Voo 1997, p. 229
- ^ Defined but not named in Collins & Pisarevsky 2005: "Azania" was a Greek name for the East African coast
- ^ Li et al. 2008, The birth of Gondwanaland (600–530 Ma), p. 201
- ^ Meert 2003, Abstract
- ^ Grantham, Maboko & Eglington 2003
- ^ Cawood 2005, Definition and Tectonic Framework, pp. 4–6
- ^ Münker & Crawford 2000, Abstract
- ^ Torsvik & Cocks 2013, Marginal microcontinents and terranes, p. 1008
- ^ Torsvik & Cocks 2013, Southern Europe, pp. 1008–1009
- ^ McLoughlin 2001, Cimmerian terranes, p. 278
- ^ Torsvik & Cocks 2013, South-central and eastern Asia
- ^ Cawood 2005, Peri-Gondwanan continental basement assemblages, pp. 15–16
- ^ Rapalini 2001; Rapalini 1998, pp. 105–106
- ^ Dalla Salda et al. 1998, Abstract; Vujovich, van Staal & Davis 2004, Conclusions, p. 1053
- .
- ^ .
- ^ hdl:11336/92748.
- hdl:11336/81577.
- ^ Li et al. 2008, Abstract
- ^ Torsvik & Van der Voo 2002, Data selection and reconstruction fits, p. 772
- ^ Blakey 2003, Assembly of Western Pangaea: Carboniferous–Permian, pp. 453–454
- ^ Blakey 2003, Assembly of Eastern Pangaea: Late Permian–Jurassic, p. 454
- ^ Blakey 2003, Summary: significance of Pangaean events, pp. 454–455
- ^ Marzoli et al. 1999, Abstract
- ^ "Gondwana Remnants in Alabama And Georgia: Uchee Is An 'Exotic' Peri-Gondwanan Arc Terrane, Not Part of Laurentia". ScienceDaily. 4 February 2008. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
- ^ Jokat et al. 2003, Introduction, pp. 1–2
- ^ Encarnación et al. 1996, Early rifting and Gondwana breakup, pp. 537–538
- ^ Royer et al. 1988, Figg. 7 a–j, pp. 248–257
- ISBN 978-94-017-8026-1.
- .
- ^ Powell, Roots & Veevers 1988, Abstract
- ^ DeMets, Gordon & Royer 2005, Introduction; Fig. 1, p. 446
- ^ Müller, Royer & Lawver 1993, Model results, pp. 277–278
- ^ McLoughlin 2001, East Antarctica–Australia, p. 280
- ^ McLoughlin 2001, West Antarctica–Tasmania, p. 280
- ^ Seton et al. 2012, South Atlantic, pp. 217–218
- ^ a b c Ramos 2009, Abstract
- ^ a b c d e Charrier, Pinto & Rodríguez 2006, pp. 45–46
- ^ a b Hoffmann-Rothe et al. 2006
- ^ Yin & Harrison 2000, Abstract
- ^ Luyendyk, Forsyth & Phillips 1972, Abstract
- ^ Jestin, Huchon & Gaulier 1994, Abstract
- ^ Martin 2006, Palaeogeography, pp. 538–539
- ^ Martin 2006, Conclusions, pp. 557–558
- ^ Lagabrielle et al. 2009, Timing of opening of the Drake Passage region, pp. 198–199
- ^ Lagabrielle et al. 2009, Conclusions, p. 210
- ^ Hill & Hall 2003, Abstract
- ^ Travouillon et al. 2009, Abstract
- ^ Barker et al. 2007, Abstract
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, SILURIAN: terrestrial life appears in the tropics, p. 148
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, The First Extinction, p. 151
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, The Silurian revolution, p. 151
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, DEVONIAN: colonising Gondwana; The Second Extinction; Global colonisation of plants, pp. 151, 153
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, Amphibian prelude, p. 153
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, CARBONIFEROUS: competing with ice, pp. 153–154
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, PERMIAN: the glossopterid empire, pp. 153–154
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, TRIASSIC: the gymnosperm heyday, pp. 155–156
- ^ Anderson et al. 1999, JURASSIC: volcanism, conifers and bennettitaleans, pp. 156, 158
- ^ a b Anderson et al. 1999, Cretaceous: of flowers and pollination, pp. 158–159
- ^ Gurovich & Beck 2009, Introduction, pp. 25–26
- ^ Woodburne, Rich & Springer 2003, Gondwana and early mammal evolution, p. 375
- ^ HaoMin & ZheKun 2007
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- Suess, E. (1885). Das Antlitz der Erde (The Face of the Earth) (in German). Vol. 1. Leipzig, Germany: G. Freytag. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
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External links
- Houseman, Greg. "Animation of the dispersal of Gondwanaland". University of Leeds. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- Barend Köbben; Colin Reeves; Maarten de Wit. "Interactive animation of the breakup of Gondwana". ITC, University of Twente. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
- Graphical subjects dealing with Tectonics and Paleontology
- Gondwana Reconstruction and Dispersion
- The Gondwana Map Project Archived 20 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- van Hinsbergen, Douwe J.J.; Torsvik, Trond H.; Schmid, Stefan M.; Maţenco, Liviu C.; Maffione, Marco; Vissers, Reinoud L.M.; Gürer, Derya; Spakman, Wim (September 2019). "Orogenic architecture of the Mediterranean region and kinematic reconstruction of its tectonic evolution since the Triassic". Gondwana Research. 81: 79–229. .