Good
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (May 2019) |
In most contexts, the concept of good denotes the conduct that should be preferred when posed with a choice between possible actions. Good is generally considered to be the opposite of evil and is of ethics, morality, philosophy, and religion. The specific meaning and etymology of the term and its associated translations among ancient and contemporary languages show substantial variation in its inflection and meaning, depending on circumstances of place and history, or of philosophical or religious context.
History of Western ideas
Every language has a word expressing good in the sense of "having the right or desirable quality" (
Plato and Aristotle
Although the history of the origin of the use of the concept and meaning of "good" are diverse, the notable discussions of Plato and Aristotle on this subject have been of significant historical effect. The first references that are seen in Plato's The Republic to the
Plato identifies how the form of the Good allows for the cognizance to understand such difficult concepts as justice. He identifies knowledge and truth as important, but through Socrates (508d–e) says, "good is yet more prized". He then proceeds to explain that "although the good is not being" it is "superior to it in rank and power", it is what "provides for knowledge and truth" (508e).[2]
In contrast to Plato, Aristotle discusses the Forms of Good in critical terms several times in both of his major surviving ethical works, the Eudemian and Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle argues that Plato's Form of the Good does not apply to the physical world, for Plato does not assign "goodness" to anything in the existing world. Because Plato's Form of the Good does not explain events in the physical world, humans have no reason to believe that the Form of the Good exists and the Form of the Good thereby, is irrelevant to human ethics.[3]
Plato and Aristotle were not the first contributors in ancient Greece to the study of the "good" and discussion preceding them can be found among the pre-Socratic philosophers. In Western civilisation, the basic meanings of κακός and ἀγαθός are "bad, cowardly" and "good, brave, capable", and their absolute sense emerges only around 400 BC, with
Ancient western religions
Aside from ancient Greek studies of the "good", more than twenty-five hundred years ago in the eastern part of ancient
For the western world, this idea developed into a religion that spawned many
This development from the relative or habitual to the absolute is evident in the terms ethics and morality as well, both being derived from terms for "regional custom", Greek ἦθος and Latin mores, respectively (see also siðr).
Medieval period in western cultures
Medieval Christian philosophy was founded on the work of Bishop Augustine of Hippo and theologian Thomas Aquinas, who understood evil in terms of Biblical infallibility and Biblical inerrancy, as well as the influences of Plato and Aristotle, in their appreciation of the concept of the Summum bonum. Silent contemplation was the route to appreciation of the Idea of the Good.[8]
Many medieval Christian theologians both broadened and narrowed the basic concept of Good and Evil until it came to have several, sometimes complex definitions such as:[9]
- a personal preference or subjective judgment regarding any issue that might earn praise or punishment from the religious authorities
- religious obligation arising from Divine law leading to sainthood or damnation
- a generally accepted survivalor wealth
- natural law or behaviour that induces strong emotional reaction
- statute law imposing a legal duty
Modern concepts
Kant
A significant enlightenment context for studying the "good" has been its significance in the study of "the good, the true, and the beautiful" as found in Immanuel Kant and other Enlightenment philosophers and religious thinkers. These discussions were undertaken by Kant, particularly in the context of his Critique of Practical Reason.
Rawls
John Rawls's book A Theory of Justice prioritized social arrangements and goods, based on their contribution to justice. Rawls defined justice as fairness, especially in distributing social goods, defined fairness in terms of procedures, and attempted to prove that just institutions and lives are good, if every rational individual's goods are considered fairly. Rawls's crucial invention was the original position, a procedure in which one tries to make objective moral decisions by refusing to let personal facts about oneself enter one's moral calculations.
Opposition to evil
In religion, ethics, and philosophy, "
As a religious concept, basic ideas of a dichotomy between good and evil has developed in western cultures so that today:
- charity, continuity, happiness, love, and justice
- Evil typically is associated with conscious and deliberate wrongdoing, discrimination designed to harm others, humiliation of people designed to diminish their psychological needs and dignity, destructiveness, and acts of unnecessary and/or indiscriminate violence [11]
- the dilemma of the human condition and their capacity to perform both good and evil activities [12]
In Buddhism
In cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, this antagonistic duality itself must be overcome through achieving Śūnyatā, or emptiness. This is the recognition of good and evil not being unrelated, but two parts of a greater whole; unity, oneness, a Monism.[10]
In the field of biology
Morality is regarded by some biologists (notably Edward O. Wilson, Jeremy Griffith, David Sloan Wilson, and Frans de Waal) as an important question to be addressed by the field of biology.[13][14][15][16]
See also
- Adiaphora
- Axiology
- Beneficence (ethics)
- Beyond Good and Evil (Nietzsche)
- Common good
- Descriptive ethics
- Devil
- Ethics
- Evil
- Form of the Good (Plato)
- Graded absolutism
- Inductive reasoning
- Meta-ethics
- Moral absolutism
- Moral dilemma
- Moral realism
- Moral universalism
- Morality
- Non-physical entity
- Objectivist theory of good and evil
- On the Genealogy of Morality (Nietzsche)
- Problem of evil
- Righteousness
- Sin
- Supreme good
- Tree of the knowledge of good and evil
- Utopia
- Value theory
- Welfarism
References
- ^ Donald Brown (1991) Human Universals. Philadelphia, Temple University Press (online summary).
- ISBN 978-0-87220-136-1.
- ISBN 0-19-924559-2.
- ^ Charles H. Kahn, Democritus and the Origins of Moral Psychology, The American Journal of Philology (1985)
- ^ Boyce 1979, pp. 6–12
- ^ John Hinnel (1997). The Penguin Dictionary of Religion. Penguin Books UK.
- ISBN 978-159477-035-7.
- ^ A. Kojeve, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel (1980) p. 108
- ISBN 978-0800624477.
- ^ Frederick John Streng. Buddhist-Christian Dialogue: Mutual Renewal and Transformation. University of Hawaii Press, 1986. P. 148-149.
- ^ Ervin Staub. Overcoming evil: genocide, violent conflict, and terrorism. New York, New York, USA: Oxford University Press, Pp. 32.
- ISBN 9781741290073.
- ISBN 9780871404138.
- ISBN 9781741290073.
- ISBN 9780385340922.
- de Waal, Frans (2012). Moral behavior in animals. Archived from the originalon 2012-04-17. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
Further reading
- Aristotle. "Nicomachean Ethics". 1998. USA: Oxford University Press. (1177a15)
- Bentham, Jeremy. The Principles of Morals and Legislation. 1988. Prometheus Books.
- Boyce, Mary (1979). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge/Kegan Paul. Corrected repr. 1984; repr. with new foreword 2001.
- Dewey, John. Theory of Valuation. 1948. University of Chicago Press.
- Griffin, James. Well-Being: Its Meaning, Measurement and Moral Importance. 1986. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature. 2000. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Hurka, Thomas. Perfectionism. 1993. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. 1996. Cambridge University Press. Third section, [446]-[447].
- Kierkegaard, Søren. Either/Or. 1992. Penguin Classics.
- Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. 1999. Belknap Press.
- Ross, W. D. The Right and the Good. 1930. Oxford University Press.