GCHQ

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Not to be confused with HM Government Communications Centre or Conservative Campaign Headquarters.

Government Communications Headquarters
Director of GCHQ
Child agencies
Websitewww.gchq.gov.uk Edit this at Wikidata
Footnotes

Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) is an

Foreign Office and its Director ranks as a Permanent Secretary
.

GCHQ was originally established after the

Second World War it was located at Bletchley Park, where it was responsible for breaking the German Enigma codes. There are two main components of GCHQ, the Composite Signals Organisation (CSO), which is responsible for gathering information, and the National Cyber Security Centre
(NCSC), which is responsible for securing the UK's own communications. The Joint Technical Language Service (JTLS) is a small department and cross-government resource responsible for mainly technical language support and translation and interpreting services across government departments. It is co-located with GCHQ for administrative purposes.

In 2013, GCHQ received considerable media attention when the former

Seeb, Oman, and the close involvement of BT and Cable & Wireless in intercepting internet communications.[6]

Structure

GCHQ is led by the Director of GCHQ, Anne Keast-Butler, and a Corporate Board, made up of executive and non-executive directors. Reporting to the Corporate Board are:[7][8]

  • Sigint missions: comprising maths and cryptanalysis, IT and computer systems, linguistics and translation, and the intelligence analysis unit
  • Enterprise: comprising applied research and emerging technologies, corporate knowledge and information systems, commercial supplier relationships, and biometrics
  • Corporate management: enterprise resource planning, human resources, internal audit, and architecture
  • National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC).[9]

History

See also: Second World War activities of GC&CS referred to as 'Ultra'

World War I

During the First World War, the

Admiralty and located in Watergate House, Adelphi, London.[12] Its public function was "to advise as to the security of codes and cyphers used by all Government departments and to assist in their provision", but also had a secret directive to "study the methods of cypher communications used by foreign powers".[15] GC&CS officially formed on 1 November 1919,[16] and produced its first decrypt prior to that date, on 19 October.[12]

Allidina Visram school in Mombasa, pictured above in 2006, was the location of the British "Kilindini" codebreaking outpost during World War II.

Before the Second World War, GC&CS was a relatively small department. By 1922, the main focus of GC&CS was on diplomatic traffic, with "no service traffic ever worth circulating"

St. James's Park.[12] Messages decrypted by GC&CS were distributed in blue-jacketed files that became known as "BJs".[19] In the 1920s, GC&CS was successfully reading Soviet Union diplomatic cyphers. However, in May 1927, during a row over clandestine Soviet support for the General Strike and the distribution of subversive propaganda, Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin made details from the decrypts public.[20]

World War II

During the Second World War, GC&CS was based largely at

William Tutte, I. J. (Jack) Good, Peter Calvocoressi and Hugh Foss.[23] The 1943 British–US Communication Intelligence Agreement, BRUSA, connected the signal intercept networks of the GC&CS and the US National Security Agency (NSA).[24][25] Equipment used to break enemy codes included the Colossus computer.[26] Colossus consisted of ten networked computers.[27]

An outstation in the Far East, the

Kilindini, near Mombasa, Kenya.[28]

Post Second World War

GC&CS was renamed the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) in June 1946.[29]

The organisation was at first based in Eastcote in northwest London, then in 1951[30] moved to the outskirts of Cheltenham, setting up two sites at Oakley and Benhall. One of the major reasons for selecting Cheltenham was that the town had been the location of the headquarters of the United States Army Services of Supply for the European Theater during the War, which built up a telecommunications infrastructure in the region to carry out its logistics tasks.[31]

Following the

Second World War, US and British intelligence have shared information as part of the UKUSA Agreement. The principal aspect of this is that GCHQ and its US equivalent, the National Security Agency (NSA), share technologies, infrastructure and information.[32][9]

GCHQ ran many

Sovereign Base Area.[33]

During the Cuban Missile Crisis, GCHQ Scarborough intercepted radio communications from Soviet ships reporting their positions and used that to establish where they were heading. A copy of the report was sent directly to the White House Situation Room, providing initial indications of Soviet intentions with regards the US naval blockade of Cuba.[34]

Duncan Campbell and Mark Hosenball revealed the existence of GCHQ in 1976 in an article for Time Out; as a result, Hosenball was deported from the UK.[35][36] GCHQ had a very low profile in the media until 1983 when the trial of Geoffrey Prime, a KGB mole within it, created considerable media interest.[37]

Trade union disputes

Main articles: Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service and GCHQ trade union ban
NUCPS banner on march in Cheltenham
1992

In 1984, GCHQ was the centre of a political row when, in the wake of strikes which affected Sigint collection, the

Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention.[39]

A no-strike agreement was eventually negotiated and the ban lifted by the incoming Labour government in 1997, with the Government Communications Group of the Public and Commercial Services Union (PCS) being formed to represent interested employees at all grades.[40][9] In 2000, a group of 14 former GCHQ employees, who had been dismissed after refusing to give up their union membership, were offered re-employment, which three of them accepted.[41]

The legal case Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service is significant beyond the dispute, and even beyond trade union law, in that it held for the first time that the royal prerogative is generally subject to judicial review, although the House of Lords ruled in favour of the Crown in this instance.[42]

Post Cold War

1990s: Post-Cold War restructuring

The

Jim Callaghan had described GCHQ as a "full-blown bureaucracy", adding that future bodies created to provide oversight of the intelligence agencies should "investigate whether all the functions that GCHQ carries out today are still necessary."[45]

In late 1993 civil servant Michael Quinlan advised a deep review of the work of GCHQ following the conclusion of his "Review of Intelligence Requirements and Resources", which had imposed a 3% cut on the agency.[46] The Chief Secretary to the Treasury, Jonathan Aitken, subsequently held face to face discussions with the intelligence agency directors to assess further savings in the wake of Quinlan's review. Aldrich (2010) suggests that Sir John Adye, the then Director of GCHQ performed badly in meetings with Aitken, leading Aitken to conclude that GCHQ was "suffering from out-of-date methods of management and out-of-date methods for assessing priorities".[47] GCHQ's budget was £850 million in 1993, (£1.84 billion as of 2021)[48] compared to £125 million for the Security Service and SIS (MI5 and MI6). In December 1994 the businessman Roger Hurn was commissioned to begin a review of GCHQ, which was concluded in March 1995.[49] Hurn's report recommended a cut of £100  million in GCHQ's budget; such a large reduction had not been suffered by any British intelligence agency since the end of World War II.[49] The J Division of GCHQ, which had collected SIGINT on Russia, disappeared as a result of the cuts.[49] The cuts had been mostly reversed by 2000 in the wake of threats from violent non-state actors, and risks from increased terrorism, organised crime and illegal access to nuclear, chemical and biological weapons.[50]

David Omand became the Director of GCHQ in 1996, and greatly restructured the agency in the face of new and changing targets and rapid technological change.[51] Omand introduced the concept of "Sinews" (or "SIGINT New Systems") which allowed more flexible working methods, avoiding overlaps in work by creating fourteen domains, each with a well-defined working scope.[51] The tenure of Omand also saw the construction of a modern new headquarters, intended to consolidate the two old sites at Oakley and Benhall into a single, more open-plan work environment.[51] Located on a 176-acre site in Benhall, it would be the largest building constructed for secret intelligence operations outside the United States.[52][9]

Operations at GCHQ's

transfer of Hong Kong to the Chinese government in 1997, the Hong Kong stations operations were moved to Australian Defence Satellite Communications Station in Geraldton in Western Australia.[54]

Operations that used GCHQ's intelligence-gathering capabilities in the 1990s included the monitoring of communications of Iraqi soldiers in the

cybercrime.[56]

2000s: Coping with the Internet

See also:
Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)

At the end of 2003, GCHQ moved in to its new building. Built on a circular plan around a large central courtyard, it quickly became known as the Doughnut. At the time, it was one of the largest public-sector building projects in Europe, with an estimated cost of £337 million. The new building, which was designed by Gensler and constructed by Carillion, became the base for all of GCHQ's Cheltenham operations.[57]

The public spotlight fell on GCHQ in late 2003 and early 2004 following the sacking of Katharine Gun after she leaked to The Observer a confidential email from agents at the United States' National Security Agency addressed to GCHQ agents about the wiretapping of UN delegates in the run-up to the 2003 Iraq war.[58]

GCHQ gains its intelligence by monitoring a wide variety of communications and other electronic signals. For this, a number of stations have been established in the UK and overseas. The listening stations are at Cheltenham itself,

Menwith Hill.[59] Ayios Nikolaos Station in Cyprus is run by the British Army for GCHQ.[60]

In March 2010, GCHQ was criticised by the

Intelligence and Security Committee for problems with its IT security practices and failing to meet its targets for work targeted against cyber attacks.[61]

As revealed by

keyloggers that had been installed during the summit.[62]

According to Edward Snowden, at that time GCHQ had two principal umbrella programs for collecting communications:

GCHQ has also had access to the US internet monitoring programme

PRISM from at least as far back as June 2010.[64] PRISM is said to give the National Security Agency and FBI easy access to the systems of nine of the world's top internet companies, including Google, Facebook, Microsoft, Apple, Yahoo, and Skype.[65]

From 2013, GCHQ realised that public attitudes to Sigint had changed and its former unquestioned secrecy was no longer appropriate or acceptable. The growing use of the Internet, together with its inherent insecurities, meant that the communications traffic of private citizens were becoming inextricably mixed with those of their targets and openness in the handling of this issue was becoming essential to their credibility as an organisation. The Internet had become a "cyber commons", with its dominance creating a "second age of Sigint". GCHQ transformed itself accordingly, including greatly expanded Public Relations and Legal departments, and adopting public education in cyber security as an important part of its remit.[66]

2010s: Disinformation, discord and division

In February 2014, The Guardian, based on documents provided by Snowden, revealed that GCHQ had indiscriminately collected 1.8 million private Yahoo webcam images from users across the world.[67] In the same month NBC and The Intercept, based on documents released by Snowden, revealed the Joint Threat Research Intelligence Group and the Computer Network Exploitation units within GCHQ. Their mission was cyber operations based on "dirty tricks" to shut down enemy communications, discredit, and plant misinformation on enemies.[68] These operations were 5% of all GCHQ operations according to a conference slideshow presented by the GCHQ.[69]

Soon after becoming Director of GCHQ in 2014,

techUK rejected these claims, stating that they understood the issues but that disclosure obligations "must be based upon a clear and transparent legal framework and effective oversight rather than, as suggested, a deal between the industry and government".[72]

In 2015, documents obtained by

IP address of Internet users visiting websites, and was established with no public scrutiny or oversight. KARMA POLICE is a powerful spying tool in conjunction with other GCHQ programs because IP addresses could be cross-referenced with other data.[73] The goal of the program, according to the documents, was "either (a) a web browsing profile for every visible user on the internet, or (b) a user profile for every visible website on the internet."[73]

In 2015, GCHQ admitted for the first time in court that it conducts computer hacking.[74]

In 2017, US Press Secretary Sean Spicer made allegations that GCHQ had conducted surveillance on US President Donald Trump. These unfounded claims were based on statements made during an opinion piece in a FOX media segment.[75][76] The US government formally apologised for the unfounded allegations and promised they would not be repeated.[77][78][79]

British intelligence did gather information relating to Russian

contacts made by Trump's campaign team in the run-up to his election, which were passed on to US intelligence agencies.[80][81]

On 31 October 2018, GCHQ joined Instagram.[82][83]

Personnel awards

GCHQ personnel are recognised annually by

Secret Intelligence Service (MI6).[84] Awards and citations are given to teams within the agencies as well as individuals.[84]

Security mission

As well as a mission to gather intelligence, GCHQ has for a long time had a corresponding mission to assist in the protection of the British government's own communications. When the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) was created in 1919, its overt task was providing security advice.[85] GC&CS's Security section was located in Mansfield College, Oxford during the Second World War.[85]

In April 1946, GC&CS became GCHQ, and the now GCHQ Security section moved from Oxford to join the rest of the organisation at Eastcote later that year.[85]

LCSA

From 1952 to 1954, the intelligence mission of GCHQ relocated to Cheltenham; the Security section remained at Eastcote,[85] and in March 1954 became a separate, independent organisation: the London Communications Security Agency (LCSA),[85] which in 1958 was renamed to the London Communications-Electronic Security Agency (LCESA).[85]

In April 1965, GPO and MOD units merged with LCESA to become the Communications-Electronic Security Department (CESD).[85]

CESG

In October 1969, CESD was merged into GCHQ and becoming Communications-Electronic Security Group (CESG).[85]

In 1977 CESG relocated from Eastcote to Cheltenham.[85]

CESG continued as the UK National Technical Authority for

Oxford University and the Heilbronn Institute for Mathematical Research at the University of Bristol.[86]

In the 21st century, CESG ran a number of assurance schemes such as CHECK, CLAS, Commercial Product Assurance (CPA) and CESG Assisted Products Service (CAPS).[87]

Public key encryption

In 1970 the concept for

declassified in 1997.[88][89]

By 1997 broader public key cryptography commercial technologies had been independently developed and had become well established, in areas such as

TCP/IP security component) etc.[90] Most notably in 1977 the RSA algorithm had been developed (equivalent to Cocks' system) and by 1997 was extremely well established.[91]

NCSC

In 2016, the

Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (CPNI).[92]

Joint Technical Language Service

The Joint Technical Language Service (JTLS) was established in 1955,[93] drawing on members of the small Ministry of Defence technical language team and others, initially to provide standard English translations for organisational expressions in any foreign language, discover the correct English equivalents of technical terms in foreign languages and discover the correct expansions of abbreviations in any language.[94] The remit of the JTLS has expanded in the ensuing years to cover technical language support and interpreting and translation services across the UK Government and to local public sector services in Gloucestershire and surrounding counties. The JTLS also produces and publishes foreign language working aids under crown copyright and conducts research into machine translation and on-line dictionaries and glossaries. The JTLS is co-located with GCHQ for administrative purposes.[95]

International relationships

See also: UKUSA Agreement and Five Eyes

GCHQ operates in partnership with equivalent agencies worldwide in a number of bi-lateral and multi-lateral relationships. The principal of these is with the United States (

UK-US Security Agreement, a broad intelligence-sharing agreement encompassing a range of intelligence collection methods. Relationships are alleged to include shared collection methods, such as the system described in the popular media as ECHELON, as well as analysed product.[96]

Legal basis

Main article: Intelligence Services Act 1994

GCHQ's legal basis is established by the Intelligence Services Act 1994 Section 3 as follows:

  • (1) There shall continue to be a Government Communications Headquarters under the authority of the Secretary of State; and, subject to subsection (2) below, its functions shall be—
    • (a) to monitor or interfere with electromagnetic, acoustic and other emissions and any equipment producing such emissions and to obtain and provide information derived from or related to such emissions or equipment and from encrypted material; and
    • (b) to provide advice and assistance about—
      • (i) languages, including terminology used for technical matters, and
      • (ii) cryptography and other matters relating to the protection of information and other material, to the armed forces of the Crown, to Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom or to a Northern Ireland Department or to any other organisation which is determined for the purposes of this section in such manner as may be specified by the Prime Minister.
  • (2) The functions referred to in subsection (1)(a) above shall be exercisable only—
    • (a) in the interests of national security, with particular reference to the defence and foreign policies of His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom; or
    • (b) in the interests of the economic well-being of the United Kingdom in relation to the actions or intentions of persons outside the British Islands; or
    • (c) in support of the prevention or detection of serious crime.
  • (3) In this Act, the expression "GCHQ" refers to the Government Communications Headquarters and to any unit or part of a unit of the armed forces of the Crown which is for the time being required by the Secretary of State to assist the Government Communications Headquarters in carrying out its functions.[44]

Activities that involve interception of communications are permitted under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000; this kind of interception can only be carried out after a warrant has been issued by a Secretary of State. The Human Rights Act 1998 requires the intelligence agencies, including GCHQ, to respect citizens' rights as described in the European Convention on Human Rights.[97][98][99]

Oversight

See also: Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom

The

Intelligence and Security Committee. The remit of the Committee includes oversight of intelligence and security activities and reports are made directly to Parliament.[43] Its functions were increased under the Justice and Security Act 2013 to provide for further access and investigatory powers.[100]

Judicial oversight of GCHQ's conduct is exercised by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal.[101] The UK also has an independent Intelligence Services Commissioner and Interception of Communications Commissioner, both of whom are former senior judges.[102]

The Investigatory Powers Tribunal ruled in December 2014 that GCHQ does not breach the

Prism and Upstream, had been in contravention of human rights law prior to this until two paragraphs of additional information, providing details about the procedures and safeguards, were disclosed to the public in December 2014.[103][104][105]

Furthermore, the IPT ruled that the legislative framework in the United Kingdom does not permit mass surveillance and that while GCHQ collects and analyses data in bulk, it does not practice mass surveillance.[98][106][107] This complements independent reports by the Interception of Communications Commissioner,[108] and a special report made by the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament; although several shortcomings and potential improvements to both oversight and the legislative framework were highlighted.[109]

Abuses

Despite the inherent secrecy around much of GCHQ's work, investigations carried out by the UK government after the Snowden disclosures have admitted various abuses by the security services. A report by the

Intelligence and Security Committee (ISC) in 2015 revealed that a small number of staff at UK intelligence agencies had been found to misuse their surveillance powers, in one case leading to the dismissal of a member of staff at GCHQ, although there were no laws in place at the time to make these abuses a criminal offence.[110]

Later that year, a ruling by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal found that GCHQ acted unlawfully in conducting surveillance on two human rights organisations. The closed hearing found the government in breach of its internal surveillance policies in accessing and retaining the communications of the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights and the Legal Resources Centre in South Africa. This was only the second time in the IPT's history that it had made a positive determination in favour of applicants after a closed session.[111]

At another IPT case in 2015, GCHQ conceded that "from January 2010, the regime for the interception/obtaining, analysis, use, disclosure and destruction of legally privileged material has not been in accordance with the law for the purposes of Article 8(2) of the European convention on human rights and was accordingly unlawful".[112] This admission was made in connection with a case brought against them by Abdelhakim Belhaj, a Libyan opponent of the former Gaddafi regime, and his wife Fatima Bouchard. The couple accused British ministers and officials of participating in their unlawful abduction, kidnapping and removal to Libya in March 2004, while Gaddafi was still in power.[113]

On 25 May 2021, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled that the GCHQ is guilty of violating data privacy rules through their bulk interception of communications, and does not provide sufficient protections for confidential journalistic material because it gathers communications in bulk.[114]

Surveillance of parliamentarians

In 2015 there was a complaint by Green Party MP Caroline Lucas that British intelligence services, including GCHQ, had been spying on MPs allegedly "in defiance of laws prohibiting it."[115]

Then-Home Secretary, Theresa May, had told Parliament in 2014 that:

Obviously, the Wilson Doctrine applies to parliamentarians. It does not absolutely exclude the use of these powers against parliamentarians, but it sets certain requirements for those powers to be used in relation to a parliamentarian. It is not the case that parliamentarians are excluded and nobody else in the country is, but there is a certain set of rules and protocols that have to be met if there is a requirement to use any of these powers against a parliamentarian.[116]

The

political convention.[118]

Constitutional legal case

A controversial GCHQ case determined the scope of judicial review of prerogative powers (the Crown's residual powers under common law). This was Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374 (often known simply as the "GCHQ case"). In this case, a prerogative Order in Council had been used by the prime minister (who is the Minister for the Civil Service) to ban trade union activities by civil servants working at GCHQ. This order was issued without consultation. The House of Lords had to decide whether this was reviewable by judicial review. It was held that executive action is not immune from judicial review simply because it uses powers derived from common law rather than statute (thus the prerogative is reviewable).[119]

Leadership

Main article:
Director of the Government Communications Headquarters

The following is a list of the heads and operational heads of GCHQ and GC&CS:

Stations and former stations

The following are stations and former stations that have operated since the Cold War.[120][121]

In popular culture

In the historical drama film The Imitation Game (2014) Benedict Cumberbatch portrays Alan Turing in his efforts to break the Enigma code while employed by the Government Code and Cypher School.[122]

GCHQ have set a number of cryptic online challenges to the public, used to attract interest and for recruitment, starting in late 1999.[123][124] The response to the 2004 challenge was described as "excellent",[125] and the challenge set in 2015 had over 600,000 attempts.[126] It also published the GCHQ Puzzle Book in 2016 which sold more than 300,000 copies, with the proceeds going to charity. A second book was published in October 2018.[127]

GCHQ appeared in the Doctor Who 2019 special "Resolution" where the Reconnaissance Scout Dalek storms the facility and exterminates the staff in order to use the organisation's resources to summon a Dalek fleet.[128][129]

GCHQ is the setting of the 2020 Sky One sitcom Intelligence, featuring David Schwimmer as an incompetent American NSA officer liaising with GCHQ's Cyber Crimes unit.[130]

In October 2020, intelligence and security expert John Ferris published Behind the Enigma: The Authorised History of GCHQ, Britain's Secret Cyber-Intelligence Agency.[131]

GCHQ is the setting of the 2022 Channel 4 drama The Undeclared War. Set in the near future, it depicts a work experience student at the government agency during a cyberattack on the UK and the implications.[132]

See also

GCHQ units:

GCHQ specifics:

  • Capenhurst – said to be home to a GCHQ monitoring site in the 1990s
  • Hugh Alexander – head of the cryptanalysis division at GCHQ from 1949 to 1971
  • Operation Socialist, a 2010–2013 operation in Belgium
  • Zircon, the cancelled 1980s GCHQ satellite project

UK agencies:

Elsewhere:

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b "Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament "Annual Report 2021–2022"" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
  2. ^ GCHQ – Welcome to GCHQ Archived 22 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Government of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
  3. ^ Headrick, Daniel R. (1991) The invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics 1851-1945, Oxford UP p219
  4. ^ "A simple guide to GCHQ's internet surveillance programme Tempora". Wired UK. 24 June 2013. Archived from the original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
  5. ^ Borger, Julian (21 August 2013). "NSA files: why the Guardian in London destroyed hard drives of leaked files". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  6. ^ Campbell, Duncan (3 June 2014). "Revealed: GCHQ's beyond top secret middle eastern internet spy base". The Register. Archived from the original on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
  7. ^ Aldrich, 2010, p. 565
  8. ISBN 978-0-7546-7066-7
    . Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  9. ^ a b c d e Ferris (2020)
  10. ISBN 978-0-7110-3408-2
    .
  11. ^ Johnson, 1997, p. 27
  12. ^ a b c d e f Johnson, 1997, p. 44
  13. ^ Johnson, 1997, p. 45 and Kahn, 1991, p. 82; these sources give different numbers for the initial size of the GC&CS staff
  14. ISBN 0-304-36545-9
    .
  15. ^ Smith, 2001, pp. 16–17
  16. ^ Kahn, 1991, p. 82
  17. doi:10.1080/02684528608431841
    .
  18. ^ Smith, 2001, pp. 20–21
  19. ^ Smith, 2001, pp. 18–19
  20. ^ Aldrich, 2010, p. 18
  21. ISBN 978-1-84354-331-2
    .
  22. ISBN 978-0593049105
    .
  23. ISBN 978-1-84954-078-0
  24. ^ "How the British and Americans started listening in". BBC News. 8 February 2016. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
  25. ^ "Diary reveals birth of secret UK-US spy pact that grew into Five Eyes". BBC News. 5 March 2021. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
  26. ISBN 978-3540675174, archived
    (PDF) from the original on 20 November 2008
  27. ^ McCallum, Shiona (17 January 2024). "Unseen images of code breaking computer that helped win WW2". BBC. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
  28. ^ "Mombasa was base for high-level UK espionage operation". Coastweek. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
  29. ISBN 0-330-41929-3
    .
  30. ^ "History of GCHQ Cheltenham". GCHQ website 'About Us' pages. Archived from the original on 5 October 2006. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
  31. ^ Dormon, Bob (24 May 2013). "INSIDE GCHQ: Welcome to Cheltenham's cottage industry". The Register. Archived from the original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  32. ISBN 978-1416548010
    .
  33. ISBN 978-0-007312-665. Archived
    from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  34. ^ Corera, Gordon (21 October 2019). "Scarborough's Cuban missile crisis role revealed". Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  35. ^ Duncan Campbell; Mark Hosenball (21 May 1976). "The Eavesdroppers" (PDF). Time Out. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
  36. ^ Court ruling, "R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Hosenball Archived 21 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine", [1977] 1 W.L.R. 766; [1977] 3 All E.R. 452. Lord Denning presiding judge, 29 March 1977.
  37. ^ Aldrich, 2010, p. 382
  38. ^ "EComHR Inadmissibility decision of EComHR on application no. 11603/85". 1987. Archived from the original on 4 June 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2010.
  39. ^ "EComHR Inadmissibility decision of EComHR on application no. 11603/85 – The Facts". Archived from the original on 4 June 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2010. para. IV
  40. ^ "Union representation". GCHQ website. Archived from the original on 9 May 2006. Retrieved 12 April 2006.
  41. ^ "Sacked GCHQ workers win compensation". BBC News. 1 February 2000. Archived from the original on 1 September 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2006.
  42. ISBN 978-1-84946-931-9
    .
  43. ^ a b "ISC – About". Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  44. ^ a b "Intelligence Services Act 1994". The National Archives. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  45. ^ "Hansard: December 1993 Intelligence Services Bill". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 9 December 1993. Archived from the original on 19 March 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  46. ^ Aldrich 2010, p. 493
  47. ^ Aldrich 2010, p. 494
  48. ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  49. ^ a b c Aldrich 2010, p. 495
  50. ^ a b Aldrich 2010, p. 505
  51. ^ a b c Aldrich 2010, p. 496
  52. ^ Aldrich 2010, p. 9
  53. ^ Aldrich 2010, p. 475
  54. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8108-7391-9
    .
  55. ^ Aldrich 2010, p. 473
  56. ^ Aldrich 2010, p. 489
  57. ^ "Carillion set for growth". BBC News. 19 September 2000. Archived from the original on 27 February 2009. Retrieved 22 December 2007.
  58. ^ Aldrich, 2010, p. 521
  59. ^ Campbell, Duncan (1981). "Phone tappers and the state". New Statesman: 54.
  60. ^ Aldrich, 2010, p. 471
  61. Computerworld UK. 12 March 2010. Archived
    from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
  62. ^ The Guardian: GCHQ intercepted foreign politicians' communications at G20 summits Archived 18 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, 16 June 2013
  63. ^ Philip Bump (21 June 2013). "The UK Tempora Program Captures Vast Amounts of Data – and Shares with NSA". The Atlantic Wire. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
  64. ^ "Statement on GCHQ's Alleged Interception of Communications under the US PRISM Programme" (PDF). Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament. 17 July 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
  65. ^ "Scale and significance of NSA snooping claims". BBC. 11 June 2013. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  66. ^ Ferris (2020), Chapters 14 and 15.
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Bibliography

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