Government by algorithm
Part of a series on |
Algocracy |
---|
Examples |
Part of a series on |
Governance |
---|
Government by algorithm[1] (also known as algorithmic regulation,[2] regulation by algorithms, algorithmic governance,[3] algocratic governance, algorithmic legal order or algocracy[4]) is an alternative form of government or social ordering where the usage of computer algorithms is applied to regulations, law enforcement, and generally any aspect of everyday life such as transportation or land registration.[5][6][7][8][9] The term "government by algorithm" has appeared in academic literature as an alternative for "algorithmic governance" in 2013.[10] A related term, algorithmic regulation, is defined as setting the standard, monitoring and modifying behaviour by means of computational algorithms – automation of judiciary is in its scope.[11] In the context of blockchain, it is also known as blockchain governance.[12]
Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the e-government literature and the practice of public administration.[13] Some sources equate cyberocracy, which is a hypothetical form of government that rules by the effective use of information,[14][15][16] with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information.[17][18] Nello Cristianini and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a social machine.[19]
History
In 1962, the director of the Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the
Between 1971 and 1973, the Chilean government carried out Project Cybersyn during the presidency of Salvador Allende. This project was aimed at constructing a distributed decision support system to improve the management of the national economy.[24][2] Elements of the project were used in 1972 to successfully overcome the traffic collapse caused by a CIA-sponsored strike of forty thousand truck drivers.[25]
Also in the 1960s and 1970s,
[T]he invisible hand of cyberspace is building an architecture that is quite the opposite of its architecture at its birth. This invisible hand, pushed by government and by commerce, is constructing an architecture that will perfect control and make highly efficient regulation possible[32]
Since the 2000s, algorithms have been designed and used to automatically analyze surveillance videos.[33]
In his 2006's book Virtual Migration, A. Aneesh developed the concept of algocracy — information technologies constrain human participation in public decision making.[34][35] Aneesh differentiated algocratic systems from bureaucratic systems (legal-rational regulation) as well as market-based systems (price-based regulation).[36]
In 2013, algorithmic regulation was coined by Tim O'Reilly, founder and CEO of O'Reilly Media Inc.:
Sometimes the "rules" aren't really even rules. Gordon Bruce, the former CIO of the city of Honolulu, explained to me that when he entered government from the private sector and tried to make changes, he was told, "That's against the law." His reply was "OK. Show me the law." "Well, it isn't really a law. It's a regulation." "OK. Show me the regulation." "Well, it isn't really a regulation. It's a policy that was put in place by Mr. Somebody twenty years ago." "Great. We can change that!" [...] Laws should specify goals, rights, outcomes, authorities, and limits. If specified broadly, those laws can stand the test of time. Regulations, which specify how to execute those laws in much more detail, should be regarded in much the same way that programmers regard their code and algorithms, that is, as a constantly updated toolset to achieve the outcomes specified in the laws. [...] It's time for government to enter the age of big data. Algorithmic regulation is an idea whose time has come.[37]
In 2017, Ukraine's Ministry of Justice ran experimental government auctions using blockchain technology to ensure transparency and hinder corruption in governmental transactions.[38] "Government by Algorithm?" was the central theme introduced at Data for Policy 2017 conference held on 6–7 September 2017 in London.[39]
Examples
Smart cities
A
The
In Saudi Arabia, the planners of The Line assert that it will be monitored by AI to improve life by using data and predictive modeling.[47]
Reputation systems
Tim O'Reilly suggested that data sources and reputation systems combined in algorithmic regulation can outperform traditional regulations.[37] For instance, once taxi-drivers are rated by passengers, the quality of their services will improve automatically and "drivers who provide poor service are eliminated".[37] O'Reilly's suggestion is based on control-theoreric concept of feed-back loop—improvements and disimprovements of reputation enforce desired behavior.[19] The usage of feed-loops for the management of social systems is already been suggested in management cybernetics by Stafford Beer before.[49]
These connections are explored by Nello Cristianini and Teresa Scantamburlo, where the reputation-credit scoring system is modeled as an incentive given to the citizens and computed by a social machine, so that rational agents would be motivated to increase their score by adapting their behaviour. Several ethical aspects of that technology are still being discussed.[19]
China's Social Credit System was said to be a mass surveillance effort with a centralized numerical score for each citizen given for their actions, though newer reports say that this is a widespread misconception.[50][51][52]
Smart contracts
Algorithms in government agencies
According to a study of Stanford University, 45% of the studied US federal agencies have experimented with AI and related machine learning (ML) tools up to 2020.[1] US federal agencies counted the number of artificial intelligence applications, which are listed below.[1] 53% of these applications were produced by in-house experts.[1] Commercial providers of residual applications include Palantir Technologies.[70]
Agency Name | Number of Use Cases |
---|---|
Office of Justice Programs | 12 |
Securities and Exchange Commission |
10 |
National Aeronautics and Space Administration |
9 |
Food and Drug Administration | 8 |
United States Geological Survey | 8 |
United States Postal Service | 8 |
Social Security Administration | 7 |
United States Patent and Trademark Office | 6 |
Bureau of Labor Statistics | 5 |
U.S. Customs and Border Protection | 4 |
In 2012,
In the fight against money laundering, FinCEN employs the FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System (FAIS) since 1995.[73][74]
National health administration entities and organisations such as AHIMA (American Health Information Management Association) hold medical records. Medical records serve as the central repository for planning patient care and documenting communication among patient and health care provider and professionals contributing to the patient's care. In the EU, work is ongoing on a European Health Data Space which supports the use of health data.[75]
US
The
In Estonia, artificial intelligence is used in its e-government to make it more automated and seamless. A virtual assistant will guide citizens through any interactions they have with the government. Automated and proactive services "push" services to citizens at key events of their lives (including births, bereavements, unemployment, ...). One example is the automated registering of babies when they are born.[83] Estonia's X-Road system will also be rebuilt to include even more privacy control and accountability into the way the government uses citizen's data.[84]
In Costa Rica, the possible digitalization of public procurement activities (i.e. tenders for public works, ...) has been investigated. The paper discussing this possibility mentions that the use of ICT in procurement has several benefits such as increasing transparency, facilitating digital access to public tenders, reducing direct interaction between procurement officials and companies at moments of high integrity risk, increasing outreach and competition, and easier detection of irregularities.[85]
Besides using e-tenders for regular
Government procurement audit software can also be used.[87][88] Audits are performed in some countries after subsidies have been received.
Some government agencies provide track and trace systems for services they offer. An example is track and trace for applications done by citizens (i.e. driving license procurement).[89]
Some government services use issue tracking system to keep track of ongoing issues.[90][91][92][93]
Justice by algorithm
Judges' decisions in Australia are supported by the "Split Up" software in case of determining the percentage of a split after a divorce.[94] COMPAS software is used in USA to assess the risk of recidivism in courts.[95][96] According to the statement of Beijing Internet Court, China is the first country to create an internet court or cyber court.[97][98][99] The Chinese AI judge is a virtual recreation of an actual female judge. She "will help the court's judges complete repetitive basic work, including litigation reception, thus enabling professional practitioners to focus better on their trial work".[97] Also Estonia plans to employ artificial intelligence to decide small-claim cases of less than €7,000.[100]
Lawbots can perform tasks that are typically done by paralegals or young associates at law firms. One such technology used by US law firms to assist in legal research is from ROSS Intelligence,[101] and others vary in sophistication and dependence on scripted algorithms.[102] Another legal technology chatbot application is DoNotPay.
Algorithms in education
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, in-person final exams were impossible for thousands of students.
Besides use in grading, software systems like AI were used in preparation for college entrance exams.[105]
AI teaching assistants are being developed and used for education (e.g., Georgia Tech's Jill Watson)[106][107] and there is also an ongoing debate on whether perhaps teachers can be entirely replaced by AI systems (e.g., in homeschooling).[108]
AI politicians
In 2018, an activist named Michihito Matsuda ran for mayor in the
In 2018,
In 2019, AI-powered messenger chatbot SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand.[115] The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen, believes SAM will be advanced enough to run as a candidate by late 2020, when New Zealand has its next general election.[116]
In 2022, the chatbot "Leader Lars" or "Leder Lars" was nominated for
In 2023, In the Japanese town of Manazuru, a mayoral candidate called "AI Mayer" hopes to be the first AI-powered officeholder in Japan in November 2023. This candidacy is said to be supported by a group led by Michihito Matsuda [121]
Management of infection
In February 2020, China launched a
Alipay also has the
In Cannes, France, monitoring software has been used on footage shot by
Cellphone data is used to locate infected patients in South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and other countries.[129][130] In March 2020, the Israeli government enabled security agencies to track mobile phone data of people supposed to have coronavirus. The measure was taken to enforce quarantine and protect those who may come into contact with infected citizens.[131] Also in March 2020, Deutsche Telekom shared private cellphone data with the federal government agency, Robert Koch Institute, in order to research and prevent the spread of the virus.[132] Russia deployed facial recognition technology to detect quarantine breakers.[133] Italian regional health commissioner Giulio Gallera said that "40% of people are continuing to move around anyway", as he has been informed by mobile phone operators.[134] In USA, Europe and UK, Palantir Technologies is taken in charge to provide COVID-19 tracking services.[135]
Prevention and management of environmental disasters
Reception
Benefits
Algorithmic regulation is supposed to be a system of governance where more exact data, collected from citizens via their smart devices and computers, is used to more efficiently organize human life as a collective.[150][151] As Deloitte estimated in 2017, automation of US government work could save 96.7 million federal hours annually, with a potential savings of $3.3 billion; at the high end, this rises to 1.2 billion hours and potential annual savings of $41.1 billion.[152]
Criticism
There are potential risks associated with the use of algorithms in government. Those include algorithms becoming susceptible to bias,[153] a lack of transparency in how an algorithm may make decisions,[154] and the accountability for any such decisions.[154] According to a 2016's book Weapons of Math Destruction, algorithms and big data are suspected to increase inequality due to opacity, scale and damage.[155]
There is also a serious concern that gaming by the regulated parties might occur, once more transparency is brought into the decision making by algorithmic governance, regulated parties might try to manipulate their outcome in own favor and even use adversarial machine learning.[1][19] According to Harari, the conflict between democracy and dictatorship is seen as a conflict of two different data-processing systems—AI and algorithms may swing the advantage toward the latter by processing enormous amounts of information centrally.[156]
In 2018, the Netherlands employed an algorithmic system SyRI (Systeem Risico Indicatie) to detect citizens perceived being high risk for committing welfare fraud, which quietly flagged thousands of people to investigators.[157] This caused a public protest. The district court of Hague shut down SyRI referencing Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).[158]
The contributors of the 2019 documentary
Due to public criticism, the Australian government announced the suspension of Robodebt scheme key functions in 2019, and a review of all debts raised using the programme.[160]
In 2020, algorithms assigning exam grades to students in the
In 2020, the US government software
In 2021, Eticas Foundation has launched a database of governmental algorithms called Observatory of Algorithms with Social Impact (OASI).[163]
Algorithmic bias and transparency
An initial approach towards transparency included the open-sourcing of algorithms.[164] Software code can be looked into and improvements can be proposed through source-code-hosting facilities.
Public acceptance
A 2019 poll conducted by IE University's Center for the Governance of Change in Spain found that 25% of citizens from selected European countries were somewhat or totally in favor of letting an artificial intelligence make important decisions about how their country is run.[165] The following table lists the results by country:
Country | Percentage |
---|---|
France | 25% |
Germany | 31% |
Ireland | 29% |
Italy | 28% |
Netherlands | 43% |
Portugal | 19% |
Spain | 26% |
UK | 31% |
Researchers found some evidence that when citizens perceive their political leaders or security providers to be untrustworthy, disappointing, or immoral, they prefer to replace them by artificial agents, whom they consider to be more reliable.[166] The evidence is established by survey experiments on university students of all genders.
In popular culture
The novels
See also
- Anti-corruption
- Civic technology
- Code for America
- Cyberpunk
- Cybersyn
- Digital divide
- Digital Nations
- Distributed ledger technology law
- Dutch childcare benefits scandal
- ERulemaking
- Lawbot
- Legal informatics
- Management cybernetics
- Multivac
- Predictive analytics
- Sharing economy
- Smart contract
- Algorithmocracy - [1]
Citations
- ^ a b c d e "Government by Algorithm: A Review and an Agenda". Stanford Law School. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ^ .
- .
- S2CID 146674621. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
- S2CID 157086008.
- ISSN 2197-6775. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
- ^ Abril, Rubén Rodríguez. "DERECOM. Derecho de la Comunicación. - An approach to the algorithmic legal order and to its civil, trade and financial projection". www.derecom.com (in European Spanish). Retrieved 20 May 2020.
- ^ "Rule by Algorithm? Big Data and the Threat of Algocracy". ieet.org. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
- ^ SSRN 3578610.
- ^ Williamson, Ben (January 2013). "Decoding identity: Reprogramming pedagogic identities through algorithmic governance". British Educational Research Association Conference. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
- PMID 30082301.
- S2CID 225123270.
- SSRN 3375391.
- ^ David Ronfeldt (1991). "Cyberocracy, Cyberspace, and Cyberology:Political Effects of the Information Revolution" (PDF). RAND Corporation. Retrieved 12 Dec 2014.
- ^ David Ronfeldt (1992). "Cyberocracy is Coming" (PDF). RAND Corporation. Retrieved 12 Dec 2014.
- SSRN 1325809.
- ^ Shah, Bimal Pratap (July 4, 2019). "Transparency in governance, through cyberocracy". The Kathmandu Post. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
- ^ Hudson, Alex (28 August 2019). "'Far more than surveillance' is happening and could change how government is run". Metro. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
- ^ "Organisations: Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute): Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute), Moscow, Russia". www.mathnet.ru. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- ^ "Machine of communism. Why the USSR did not create the Internet". csef.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ^ Kharkevich, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1973). Theory of information. The identification of the images. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 3. Information and technology: Moscow: Publishing House "Nauka", 1973. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of information transmission problems. pp. 495–508.
- ^ a b Gerovitch, Slava (9 April 2015). "How the Computer Got Its Revenge on the Soviet Union". Nautilus. Archived from the original on 22 September 2021. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
- ^ "IU professor analyzes Chile's 'Project Cybersyn'". UI News Room. Archived from the original on 10 September 2009. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
- .
- ^ Freeman Engstrom, David; Ho, Daniel E.; Sharkey, Catherine M.; Cuéllar, Mariano-Florentino (2020). "Government by Algorithm: Artificial Intelligence in Federal Administrative Agencies" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-08-15. Retrieved 2020-03-26.
- ISBN 9780203208038.
- ^ McCarty, L. Thorne. Reflections on" Taxman: An Experiment in Artificial Intelligence and Legal Reasoning. Harvard Law Review (1977): 837–893.
- ^ Stamper, Ronald K. The LEGOL 1 prototype system and language. The Computer Journal 20.2 (1977): 102-108.
- ISBN 978-0851245454.
- ^ Kirby, Michael (1998). "The Future of Courts - Do They Have One". Journal of Law and Information Science. 9: 141. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-465-03914-2.
- S2CID 15466712.
- JSTOR 24497537. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
- S2CID 146674621.
- ISBN 978-0-8223-3669-3.
- ^ a b c O’Reilly, Tim (2013). "Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation". In Goldstein, B.; Dyson, L. (eds.). Beyond Transparency: open Data and the Future of Civic Innovation. San Francisco: Code for America Press. pp. 289–300.
- ^ a b c Chavez-Dreyfuss, Gertrude (17 April 2017). "Ukraine launches big blockchain deal with tech firm Bitfury". Reuters. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
- ^ "Data for Policy 2017". Data for Policy CIC. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ Brauneis, Robert; Goodman, Ellen P. (1 January 2018). "Algorithmic Transparency for the Smart City". Yale Journal of Law & Technology. 20 (1): 103.
- S2CID 225022879. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- ^ Gardner, Allison. "Don't write off government algorithms – responsible AI can produce real benefits". The Conversation. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
- ^ Morrow, Garrett (2022). The Robot in City Hall: The Limitations, Structure, and Governance of Smart City Technology Regimes (PDF) – via ProQuest.
- ^ a b c "Nevada smart city: A millionaire's plan to create a local government". BBC News. 18 March 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- ^ Independent, Daniel Rothberg | The Nevada. "Blockchains, Inc. withdraws 'Innovation Zone' plan for Storey County". www.nnbw.com. Retrieved 2022-11-07.
- ^ a b c "Months before a company lobbied the Legislature to create its own county, it purchased faraway water rights that could fuel future growth". The Nevada Independent. 12 February 2021. Retrieved 2022-11-07.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia is planning a 100-mile line of car-free smart communities". Engadget. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
- ^ "XVI". Cybernetic and Management. English Universities Press. 1959.
- ISBN 978-0471948407.
- ^ "China's social credit score – untangling myth from reality | Merics". merics.org. 11 February 2022. Retrieved 2022-08-10.
- ^ Daum, Jeremy (8 October 2021). "Far From a Panopticon, Social Credit Focuses on Legal Violations". China Brief. 21 (19). Retrieved 10 October 2021.
- ^ "China's Social Credit System: Speculation vs. Reality". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021.
- ^ Bindra, Jaspreet (30 March 2018). "Transforming India through blockchain". Livemint. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
- ^ Finn, Ed (10 April 2017). "Do digital currencies spell the end of capitalism?". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
- ^ Reiff, Nathan. "Blockchain Explained". Investopedia. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
- S2CID 33773111. Archived from the originalon 2022-04-10. Retrieved 2020-05-31.
- JSTOR j.ctvn96h9r.
- ^ "What is DAO - Decentralized Autonomous Organizations". BlockchainHub. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
- ISBN 9781787125339.
- SSRN 3082055.
- SSRN 3270867– via Social Science Research Network.
- ^ "A Blockchain-Based Decentralized System for Proper Handling of Temporary Employment Contracts".
- ^ How blockchain technology could change our lives
- ^ Official, Illuminates (September 11, 2019). "Business inheritance in blockchain".
- ^ "Blockchain and AI are coming to kill these 4 business verticals".
- ^ "Silent Notary - Blockchain Notary Service 100% events falsification protection". silentnotary.com.
- ^ "The Bitfury Group and Government of Republic of Georgia Expand Blockchain Pilot" (PDF).
- ^ A BLOCKCHAIN - Journals Gateway
- ^ "Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Land Titles" (PDF).
- ^ "Leaked Palantir Doc Reveals Uses, Specific Functions And Key Clients". TechCrunch. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
- ^ Winston, Ali (27 February 2018). "Palantir has secretly been using New Orleans to test its predictive policing technology". The Verge. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
- ^ Haskins, Caroline (July 12, 2019). "300 Californian Cities Secretly Have Access to Palantir".
- ^ Senator, Ted E.; Wong, Raphael W.H.; Marrone, Michael P.; Llamas, Winston M.; Klinger, Christina D.; Khan, A.F. Umar; Cottini, Matthew A.; Goldberg, Henry G.; Wooton, Jerry. "The FinCEN Artificial Intelligence System: Identifying Potential Money Laundering from Reports of Large Cash Transactions". AAAI. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
- ISBN 978-3-642-08344-0.
- ^ "Press corner". European Commission - European Commission.
- ^ Biddle, Sam; Saleh, Maryam (August 25, 2021). "Little-Known Federal Software Can Trigger Revocation of Citizenship". The Intercept. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
- ^ "Cuccinelli Announces USCIS' FY 2019 Accomplishments and Efforts to Implement President Trump's Goals". USCIS. 16 October 2019. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
- ^ a b Szalavitz 2021, p. 41.
- ^ Szalavitz 2021, p. 40.
- NPR. Retrieved 2021-10-06.
- ^ Oliva 2020, p. 847.
- ^ Oliva 2020, p. 848.
- ^ See section on smart contracts; this is possible by means of a digital birth certificate, triggering a smart contract
- ^ "Exclusive: Estonia's vision for an 'invisible government'". March 20, 2019.
- ^ "Enhancing the use of competitive tendering in Costa Rica's Public Procurement System" (PDF).
- ^ "Procurement at Forestry Commission". GOV.UK.
- ^ "Best Government Audit Software - 2023 Reviews & Comparison". sourceforge.net.
- ^ Audit app: an effective tool for government procurement assurance
- ^ "Track your driving licence application". GOV.UK.
- ^ "Track progress of a reported road fault or issue | nidirect". www.nidirect.gov.uk. May 18, 2018.
- ^ "Senate Tracker Help – The Florida Senate". flsenate.gov. Retrieved 2021-01-17.
- ^ "Legislative Search Results". congress.gov. Retrieved 2021-01-17.
- ^ "GovTrack.us: Tracking the U.S. Congress". govtrack.us. Retrieved 2021-01-17.
- S2CID 12179742. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ Sam Corbett-Davies; Emma Pierson; Avi Feller; Sharad Goel (October 17, 2016). "A computer program used for bail and sentencing decisions was labeled biased against blacks. It's actually not that clear". The Washington Post. Retrieved January 1, 2018.
- Nautilus. No. 55. Archived from the originalon January 3, 2018. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
- ^ a b "Beijing Internet Court launches online litigation service center". english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- ^ "China Now Has AI-Powered Judges". RADII | Culture, Innovation, and Life in today's China. 16 August 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- ^ Fish, Tom (6 December 2019). "AI shock: China unveils 'cyber court' complete with AI judges and verdicts via chat app". Express.co.uk. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- ^ "Can AI Be a Fair Judge in Court? Estonia Thinks So". Wired. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- ^ "ROSS Intelligence Lands Another Law Firm Client." The American Lawyer. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <http://www.americanlawyer.com/id=1202769384977/ROSS-Intelligence-Lands-Another-Law-Firm-Client>.
- ^ CodeX Techindex. Stanford Law School, n.d. Web. 16 June 2017. <https://techindex.law.stanford.edu/ Archived 2022-03-31 at the Wayback Machine>.
- ^ Broussard, Meredith (8 September 2020). "Opinion | When Algorithms Give Real Students Imaginary Grades". The New York Times.
- ^ a b "Skewed Grading Algorithms Fuel Backlash Beyond the Classroom". Wired. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
- ^ Smith, Craig S. (December 18, 2019). "The Machines Are Learning, and So Are the Students". The New York Times – via NYTimes.com.
- ^ "Could Artificial Intelligence Replace Our Teachers? | Education World".
- ^ Leopold, Todd. "A professor built an AI teaching assistant for his courses — and it could shape the future of education". Business Insider.
- ^ Robot, Roybi (September 23, 2018). "The Future of Homeschooling: How Robots are Changing In-Home Education".
- ^ Matsuda, Michihito (14 July 2018). "POLITICS 2028: WHY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WILL REPLACE POLITICIANS". SlideShare. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
- ^ Johnston, Lachlan (12 April 2018). "There's an AI Running for the Mayoral Role of Tama City, Tokyo". OTAQUEST. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
- ^ "AI党 | 多摩市議会議員選挙2019". AI党 | 多摩市議会議員選挙2019.
- ^ "Werden Bots die besseren Politiker?". Politik & Kommunikation (in German). Retrieved 31 October 2020.
- ^ O'Leary, Abigail; Verdon, Anna (April 17, 2018). "Robot to run for mayor in Japan promising 'fairness and balance' for all". mirror.
- S2CID 211519367.
- ^ Sarmah, Harshajit (28 January 2019). "World's First AI-powered Virtual Politician SAM Joins The Electoral Race In New Zealand". Analytics India Magazine. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ^ "Meet SAM, world's first AI politician that hopes to run for New Zealand election in 2020". Hindustan Times. 26 November 2017. Archived from the original on November 26, 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ^ Sternberg, Sarah (20 June 2022). "Danskere vil ind på den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens" [Danes want to enter the political scene with artificial intelligence]. Jyllands-Posten. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ Diwakar, Amar (2022-08-22). "Can an AI-led Danish party usher in an age of algorithmic politics?". TRT World. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
- Vice: Motherboard. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
- ^ Hearing, Alice (14 October 2022). "A.I. chatbot is leading a Danish political party and setting its policies. Now users are grilling it for its stance on political landmines". Fortune.
- ^ "Danskere vil ind den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens" [AI Mayer run to the election in Manazuru Town]. Tokyo Sports. 2023-11-07. Retrieved 2023-11-25.
- PMID 32234805.
- ^ "China launches coronavirus 'close contact' app". BBC News. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ a b "China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' platform". South China Morning Post. February 12, 2020.
- ^ "China launches coronavirus 'close contact detector' app". BBC News. February 11, 2020.
- ^ Chen, Angela. "China's coronavirus app could have unintended consequences". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ Mozur, Paul; Zhong, Raymond; Krolik, Aaron (March 2, 2020). "In Coronavirus Fight, China Gives Citizens a Color Code, With Red Flags". The New York Times.
- ^ "Coronavirus France: Cameras to monitor masks and social distancing". BBC News. May 4, 2020.
- ^ Manancourt, Vincent (10 March 2020). "Coronavirus tests Europe's resolve on privacy". POLITICO. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ^ Ivan Watson; Sophie Jeong (28 February 2020). "Coronavirus mobile apps are surging in popularity in South Korea". CNN.
- ^ Tidy, Joe (17 March 2020). "Coronavirus: Israel enables emergency spy powers". BBC News. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
- ^ Paksoy, Yunus. "German telecom giant shares private data with government amid privacy fears". trtworld. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ^ "Moscow deploys facial recognition technology for coronavirus quarantine". Reuters. 21 February 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ^ "Italians scolded for flouting lockdown as death toll nears 3,000". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ^ "Palantir provides COVID-19 tracking software to CDC and NHS, pitches European health agencies". TechCrunch. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
- ^ Osumi, Magdalena (August 16, 2019). "How AI will help us better understand tsunami risks". www.preventionweb.net.
- ^ "Artificially Intelligent Tsunami Early Warning System".
- ^ "How Artificial Intelligence Could Help Fight Climate Change-Driven Wildfires and Save Lives". Fortune.
- S2CID 116032143.
- ^ "Artificial intelligence for forest fire prediction".
- S2CID 218801709.
- ISSN 1361-9209.
- ^ Rachel Metz (5 December 2019). "How AI is helping spot wildfires faster". CNN. Video by John General.
- ^ Holley, Peter. "California has 33 million acres of forest. This company is training artificial intelligence to scour it all for wildfire". The Washington Post.
- S2CID 208111095.
- S2CID 226292959.
- ^ "How Location Intelligence Can Help Protect Lives During Disasters". EHS Daily Advisor. 2022-02-09. Retrieved 2024-01-23.
- PMID 32770023.
- S2CID 52230139.
- ^ McCormick, Tim (15 February 2014). "A brief exchange with Tim O'Reilly about "algorithmic regulation" | Tim McCormick". Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ "Why the internet of things could destroy the welfare state". The Guardian. 19 July 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ Eggers, illiam D.; Schatsky, David; Viechnick, Peter. "Demystifying artificial intelligence in government". Deloitte Insights. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ^ Mehr, Hila (August 2017). "Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government" (PDF). ash.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
- ^ a b Capgemini Consulting (2017). "Unleashing the potential of Artificial Intelligence in the Public Sector" (PDF). www.capgemini.com. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
- S2CID 198779932.
- ^ Harari, Story by Yuval Noah. "Why Technology Favors Tyranny". The Atlantic. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ^ "Europe Limits Government by Algorithm. The US, Not So Much". Wired. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ^ Rechtbank Den Haag 5 February 2020, C-09-550982-HA ZA 18-388 (English), ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2020:1878
- ^ Wilkinson, Amber. "'iHuman': IDFA Review". Screen. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
- S2CID 239735326.
- ^ Reuter, Markus (17 August 2020). "Fuck the Algorithm - Jugendproteste in Großbritannien gegen maschinelle Notenvergabe erfolgreich". netzpolitik.org (in German). Retrieved 3 October 2020.
- ^ "U.S. Government Is Using an Algorithm to Flag American Citizens for Denaturalization: Report". Gizmodo. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
- ^ "OASI, the first search engine to find the algorithms that governments and companies use on citizens" (Press release). Retrieved 16 October 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-19-726383-9.
- ^ "European Tech Insights (2019) | IE CGC" (PDF). Center for the Governance of Change. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ISSN 2691-199X.
- ^ Rieger, Frank. "Understanding the Daemon". FAZ.NET (in German). Retrieved 5 April 2020.
- ^ Stainforth, Elizabeth and Jo Lindsay Walton. "Computing Utopia: The Horizons of Computational Economies in History and Science Fiction." Science Fiction Studies, vol. 46 no. 3, 2019, p. 471-489. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/sfs.2019.0084.
General and cited references
- Lessig, Lawrence (2006). Code: Version 2.0. New York: Basic Books. OCLC 133467669. Wikipedia article: Code: Version 2.0.
- Oliva, Jennifer (2020-01-08). "Prescription-Drug Policing: The Right To Health Information Privacy Pre- and Post-Carpenter". ISSN 0012-7086.
- Szalavitz, Maia (October 2021). "The Pain Algorithm". ISSN 1059-1028.
- Yeung, Karen; Lodge, Martin (2019). Algorithmic Regulation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198838494.
External links
- Government by Algorithm? by Data for Policy 2017 Conference
- Government by Algorithm Archived 2022-08-15 at the Wayback Machine by Stanford University
- A governance framework for algorithmic accountability and transparency by European Parliament
- Algorithmic Government by Zeynep Engin and Philip Treleaven, University College London
- Algorithmic Government by Prof. Philip C. Treleaven of University College London
- Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government by Hila Mehr of Harvard University
- The OASI Register, algorithms with social impact
- iHuman (Documentary, 2019) by Tonje Hessen Schei
- How Blockchain can transform India: Jaspreet Bindra Archived 2021-06-28 at the Wayback Machine
- Can An AI Design Our Tax Policy?
- New development: Blockchain—a revolutionary tool for the public sector, An introduction on the Blockchain's usage in the public sector by Vasileios Yfantis
- A bold idea to replace politicians by César Hidalgo