Phonograph record
A phonograph record (also known as a gramophone record, especially in
Until the 1940s, for about half a century, the discs were commonly made from shellac, with earlier records having a fine abrasive filler mixed in. The "vinyl" records of the late 20th century, made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC), then became commonplace.
Overview
The phonograph record was the primary medium used for music reproduction throughout the 20th century. It had co-existed with the
The phrase broken record refers to a malfunction[6] when the needle skips/jumps back to the previous groove and plays the same section over and over again indefinitely.[7][8][9]
Continued production
As of 2017[update], 48 record pressing facilities exist worldwide, 18 in the US and 30 in other countries. The increased popularity of the record has led to the investment in new and modern record-pressing machines.[10] Only two producers of lacquers (acetate discs or master discs) remain: Apollo Masters in California, and MDC in Japan.[11] On 6 February 2020, a fire destroyed the Apollo Masters plant. According to the Apollo Masters website, their future is still uncertain.[12]
History
Manufacture of disc records began in the late 19th century, at first competing with earlier cylinder records. Price, ease of use and storage made the disc record dominant by the 1910s. The standard format of disc records became known to later generations as "78s" after their playback speed in revolutions per minute, although that speed only became standardized in the late 1920s. In the late 1940s new formats pressed in vinyl, the 45 rpm single and 33 rpm long playing "LP", were introduced, gradually overtaking the formerly standard "78s" over the next decade. The late 1950s saw the introduction of stereophonic sound on commercial discs.
Predecessors
The phonautograph was invented by 1857 by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville.[13] It could not, however, play back recorded sound,[14] as Scott intended for people to read back the tracings,[15] which he called phonautograms.[16] Prior to this, tuning forks had been used in this way to create direct tracings of the vibrations of sound-producing objects, as by English physicist Thomas Young in 1807.[17]
In 1877,
The first disc records
The first commercially sold disc records were created by Emile Berliner in the 1880s. Emile Berliner improved the quality of recordings while his manufacturing associate Eldridge R. Johnson, who owned a machine shop in Camden, New Jersey, eventually improved the mechanism of the gramophone with a spring motor and a speed regulating governor, resulting in a sound quality equal to Edison's cylinders. Abandoning Berliner's "Gramophone" trademark for legal reasons in the United States, Johnson's and Berliner's separate companies reorganized in 1901 to form the Victor Talking Machine Company in Camden, New Jersey, whose products would come to dominate the market for several decades.[20]
Berliner's Montreal factory, which became the Canadian branch of
78 rpm disc developments
Early speeds
Early disc recordings were produced in a variety of speeds ranging from 60 to 130 rpm, and a variety of sizes. As early as 1894, Emile Berliner's United States Gramophone Company was selling single-sided 7-inch discs with an advertised standard speed of "about 70 rpm".[22]
One standard audio recording handbook describes speed regulators, or governors, as being part of a wave of improvement introduced rapidly after 1897. A picture of a hand-cranked 1898 Berliner Gramophone shows a governor, and says that spring drives had replaced hand drives. It notes that:
The speed regulator was furnished with an indicator that showed the speed when the machine was running so that the records, on reproduction, could be revolved at exactly the same speed...The literature does not disclose why 78 rpm was chosen for the phonograph industry, apparently this just happened to be the speed created by one of the early machines and, for no other reason continued to be used.[23]
In 1912, the Gramophone Company set 78 rpm as their recording standard, based on the average of recordings they had been releasing at the time, and started selling players whose governors had a nominal speed of 78 rpm.[24] By 1925, 78 rpm was becoming standardized across the industry. However, the exact speed differed between places with alternating current electricity supply at 60 hertz (cycles per second, Hz) and those at 50 Hz. Where the mains supply was 60 Hz, the actual speed was 78.26 rpm: that of a 60 Hz stroboscope illuminating 92-bar calibration markings. Where it was 50 Hz, it was 77.92 rpm: that of a 50 Hz stroboscope illuminating 77-bar calibration markings.[24]
Acoustic recording
Early recordings were made entirely acoustically, the sound was collected by a horn and piped to a diaphragm, which vibrated the cutting stylus. Sensitivity and frequency range were poor, and frequency response was irregular, giving acoustic recordings an instantly recognizable tonal quality. A singer almost had to put their face in the recording horn. A way of reducing resonance was to wrap the recording horn with tape.[25]
Even drums, if planned and placed properly, could be effectively recorded and heard on even the earliest jazz and military band recordings. The loudest instruments such as the drums and trumpets were positioned the farthest away from the collecting horn.
Electrical recording
During the first half of the 1920s, engineers at
A 1926 Wanamaker's ad in The New York Times offers records "by the latest Victor process of electrical recording".[30] It was recognized as a breakthrough; in 1930, a Times music critic stated:
... the time has come for serious musical criticism to take account of performances of great music reproduced by means of the records. To claim that the records have succeeded in exact and complete reproduction of all details of symphonic or operatic performances ... would be extravagant ... [but] the article of today is so far in advance of the old machines as hardly to admit classification under the same name. Electrical recording and reproduction have combined to retain vitality and color in recitals by proxy.[31]
The
The audience broke into applause ... John Philip Sousa [said]: '[Gentlemen], that is a band. This is the first time I have ever heard music with any soul to it produced by a mechanical talking machine' ... The new instrument is a feat of mathematics and physics. It is not the result of innumerable experiments, but was worked out on paper in advance of being built in the laboratory ... The new machine has a range of from 100 to 5,000 [cycles per second], or five and a half octaves ... The 'phonograph tone' is eliminated by the new recording and reproducing process.[33]
Sales of records plummeted precipitously during the early years of the Great Depression of the 1930s, and the entire record industry in America nearly foundered. In 1932, RCA Victor introduced a basic, inexpensive turntable called the Duo Jr., which was designed to be connected to their radio receivers. According to Edward Wallerstein (the general manager of the RCA Victor Division), this device was "instrumental in revitalizing the industry".[34]
78 rpm materials
The production of shellac records continued throughout the 78 rpm era, which lasted until 1948 in industrialized nations.[35]
During the Second World War, the United States Armed Forces produced thousands of 12-inch vinyl 78 rpm V-Discs for use by the troops overseas.[36] After the war, the use of vinyl became more practical as new record players with lightweight crystal pickups and precision-ground styli made of sapphire or an exotic osmium alloy proliferated. In late 1945, RCA Victor began offering "De Luxe" transparent red vinylite pressings of some Red Seal classical 78s, at a de luxe price. Later, Decca Records introduced vinyl Deccalite 78s, while other record companies used various vinyl formulations trademarked as Metrolite, Merco Plastic, and Sav-o-flex, but these were mainly used to produce "unbreakable" children's records and special thin vinyl DJ pressings for shipment to radio stations.[37]
78 rpm recording time
The playing time of a phonograph record is directly proportional to the available groove length divided by the turntable speed. Total groove length in turn depends on how closely the grooves are spaced, in addition to the record diameter. At the beginning of the 20th century, the early discs played for two minutes, the same as cylinder records.[38] The 12-inch disc, introduced by Victor in 1903, increased the playing time to three and a half minutes.[39] Because the standard 10-inch 78 rpm record could hold about three minutes of sound per side, most popular recordings were limited to that duration.[40] For example, when King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, including Louis Armstrong on his first recordings, recorded 13 sides at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana, in 1923, one side was 2:09 and four sides were 2:52–2:59.[41]
In January 1938,
In 1940, Commodore released Eddie Condon and his Band's recording of "A Good Man Is Hard to Find" in four parts, issued on both sides of two 12-inch 78s. The limited duration of recordings persisted from their advent until the introduction of the LP record in 1948. In popular music, the time limit of 3+1⁄2 minutes on a 10-inch 78 rpm record meant that singers seldom recorded long pieces. One exception is Frank Sinatra's recording of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Soliloquy", from Carousel, made on 28 May 1946. Because it ran 7m 57s, longer than both sides of a standard 78 rpm 10-inch record, it was released on Columbia's Masterwork label (the classical division) as two sides of a 12-inch record.[46]
In the 78 era, classical-music and spoken-word items generally were released on the longer 12-inch 78s, about 4–5 minutes per side. For example, on 10 June 1924, four months after the 12 February premier of Rhapsody in Blue, George Gershwin recorded an abridged version of the seventeen-minute work with Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra. It was released on two sides of Victor 55225 and ran for 8m 59s.[47]
Record albums
"Record albums" were originally booklets containing collections of multiple disc records of related material, the name being related to photograph albums or scrap albums.
78 rpm releases in the microgroove era
In 1968, when the hit movie Thoroughly Modern Millie was inspiring revivals of Jazz Age music, Reprise planned to release a series of 78-rpm singles from their artists on their label at the time, called the Reprise Speed Series. Only one disc actually saw release, Randy Newman's "I Think It's Going to Rain Today", a track from his self-titled debut album (with "The Beehive State" on the flipside).[49] Reprise did not proceed further with the series due to a lack of sales for the single, and a lack of general interest in the concept.[50]
In 1978, guitarist and vocalist Leon Redbone released a promotional 78-rpm single featuring two songs ("Alabama Jubilee" and "Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone") from his Champagne Charlie album.[51]
In the same vein of Tin Pan Alley revivals, R. Crumb & His Cheap Suit Serenaders issued a number of 78-rpm singles on their Blue Goose record label. The most familiar of these releases is probably R. Crumb & His Cheap Suit Serenaders' Party Record (1980, issued as a "Red Goose" record on a 12-inch single), with the double-entendre "My Girl's Pussy" on the "A" side and the X-rated "Christopher Columbus" on the "B" side.
In the 1990s
As a special release for Record Store Day 2011, Capitol re-released The Beach Boys single "Good Vibrations" in the form of a 10-inch 78-rpm record (b/w "Heroes and Villains"). More recently, The Reverend Peyton's Big Damn Band has released their tribute to blues guitarist Charley Patton Peyton on Patton on both 12-inch LP and 10-inch 78s.[53]
New sizes and materials after WWII: 45 rpm singles, LPs, and vinyl records
CBS Laboratories had long been at work for Columbia Records to develop a phonograph record that would hold at least 20 minutes per side.[54][55]
Research began in 1939, was suspended during World War II, and then resumed in 1945.
Unwilling to accept and license Columbia's system, in February 1949, RCA Victor released the first 45 rpm single, 7 inches in diameter with a large center hole. The 45 rpm player included a changing mechanism that allowed multiple disks to be stacked, much as a conventional changer handled 78s. Also like 78s, the short playing time of a single 45 rpm side meant that long works, such as symphonies and operas, had to be released on multiple 45s instead of a single LP, but RCA Victor claimed that the new high-speed changer rendered side breaks so brief as to be inconsequential. Early 45 rpm records were made from either vinyl or polystyrene.[59] They had a playing time of eight minutes.[60]
At first the two systems were marketed in competition, in what was called "The War of the Speeds".[61]
Speeds
Shellac era
At least one attempt to lengthen playing time was made in the early 1920s. World Records produced records that played at a constant linear velocity, controlled by Noel Pemberton Billing's patented add-on speed governor.[62]
In the 1920s, 78.26 rpm was standardized when stroboscopic discs and turntable edge markings were introduced to standardize the speeds of recording lathes. At that speed, a strobe disc with 92 lines would "stand still" in 60 Hz light. In regions of the world that use 50 Hz current, the standard was 77.92 rpm (and a disk with 77 lines).[24]
The older 78 rpm format continued to be mass-produced alongside the newer formats using new materials in decreasing numbers until the summer of 1958 in the U.S., and in a few countries, such as the Philippines and India (both countries issued recordings by the Beatles on 78s), into the late 1960s. For example, Columbia Records' last reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 78 rpm records was an album called Young at Heart, issued in November 1954.[64]
Microgroove and vinyl era
Columbia and RCA Victor each pursued their R&D secretly.[65]
The Seeburg Corporation introduced the Seeburg Background Music System in 1959, using a 16+2⁄3 rpm 9-inch record with 2-inch center hole. Each record held 40 minutes of music per side, recorded at 420 grooves per inch.[66]
The commercial rivalry between RCA Victor and Columbia Records led to RCA Victor's introduction of what it had intended to be a competing vinyl format, the 7-inch (175 mm) 45 rpm disc, with a much larger center hole. For a two-year period from 1948 to 1950, record companies and consumers faced uncertainty over which of these formats would ultimately prevail in what was known as the "War of the Speeds" (see also Format war). In 1949 Capitol and Decca adopted the new LP format and RCA Victor gave in and issued its first LP in January 1950. The 45 rpm size was gaining in popularity, too, and Columbia issued its first 45s in February 1951. By 1954, 200 million 45s had been sold.[67]
Eventually the 12-inch (300 mm) 33+1⁄3 rpm LP prevailed as the dominant format for musical albums, and 10-inch LPs were no longer issued. The last Columbia Records reissue of any Frank Sinatra songs on a 10-inch LP record was an album called Hall of Fame, CL 2600, issued on 26 October 1956, containing six songs, one each by Tony Bennett, Rosemary Clooney, Johnnie Ray, Frank Sinatra, Doris Day, and Frankie Laine.[64]
The 45 rpm discs also came in a variety known as extended play (EP), which achieved up to 10–15 minutes play at the expense of attenuating (and possibly compressing) the sound to reduce the width required by the groove. EP discs were cheaper to produce and were used in cases where unit sales were likely to be more limited or to reissue LP albums on the smaller format for those people who had only 45 rpm players. LP albums could be purchased one EP at a time, with four items per EP, or in a boxed set with three EPs or twelve items. The large center hole on 45s allows easier handling by jukebox mechanisms. EPs were generally discontinued by the late 1950s in the U.S. as three- and four-speed record players replaced the individual 45 players. One indication of the decline of the 45 rpm EP is that the last Columbia Records reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 45 rpm EP records, called Frank Sinatra (Columbia B-2641) was issued on 7 December 1959.[64]
From the mid-1950s through the 1960s, in the U.S. the common home record player or "stereo" (after the introduction of stereo recording) would typically have had these features: a three- or four-speed player (78, 45, 33+1⁄3, and sometimes 16+2⁄3 rpm); with changer, a tall spindle that would hold several records and automatically drop a new record on top of the previous one when it had finished playing, a combination cartridge with both 78 and microgroove styli and a way to flip between the two; and some kind of adapter for playing the 45s with their larger center hole. The adapter could be a small solid circle that fit onto the bottom of the spindle (meaning only one 45 could be played at a time) or a larger adapter that fit over the entire spindle, permitting a stack of 45s to be played.[63]
RCA Victor 45s were also adapted to the smaller spindle of an LP player with a plastic snap-in insert known as a "spider".[63] These inserts, commissioned by RCA president David Sarnoff and were invented by Thomas Hutchison.[citation needed]
Capacitance Electronic Discs were videodiscs invented by RCA, based on mechanically tracked ultra-microgrooves (9541 grooves/inch) on a 12-inch conductive vinyl disc.[68]
High fidelity
The term "high fidelity" was coined in the 1920s by some manufacturers of radio receivers and phonographs to differentiate their better-sounding products claimed as providing "perfect" sound reproduction.[69] The term began to be used by some audio engineers and consumers through the 1930s and 1940s. After 1949 a variety of improvements in recording and playback technologies, especially stereo recordings, which became widely available in 1958, gave a boost to the "hi-fi" classification of products, leading to sales of individual components for the home such as amplifiers, loudspeakers, phonographs, and tape players.[70] High Fidelity and Audio were two magazines that hi-fi consumers and engineers could read for reviews of playback equipment and recordings.
Stereophonic sound
A stereophonic phonograph provides two channels of audio, one left and one right. This is achieved by adding another vertical dimension of movement to the needle in addition to the horizontal one. As a result, the needle now moves not only left and right, but also up and down. But since those two dimensions do not have the same sensitivity to vibration, the difference needs to be evened out by having each channel take half its information from each direction by turning the channels 45 degrees from horizontal.[71]
As a result of the 45-degree turn and some
In 1957 the first commercial stereo two-channel records were issued first by Audio Fidelity followed by a translucent blue vinyl on Bel Canto Records, the first of which was a multi-colored-vinyl sampler featuring A Stereo Tour of Los Angeles narrated by Jack Wagner on one side, and a collection of tracks from various Bel Canto albums on the back.[72]
Noise reduction systems
A similar scheme aiming at the high-end audiophile market, and achieving a noise reduction of about 20 to 25 dB(A), was the
The availability of encoded disks in any of these formats stopped in the mid-1980s.[75]
Yet another noise reduction system for vinyl records was the
Formats
Types of records
The usual diameters of the holes on an EP record are 0.286 inches (7.26 mm).[81]
Sizes of records in the United States and the UK are generally measured in inches, e.g. 7-inch records, which are generally 45 rpm records. LPs were 10-inch records at first, but soon the 12-inch size became by far the most common. Generally, 78s were 10-inch, but 12-inch and 7-inch and even smaller were made—the so-called "little wonders".[82]
Standard formats
Diameter | Finished Diameter | Name | Revolutions per minute | Approximate duration |
---|---|---|---|---|
16 in (41 cm) | 15+15⁄16″ ±3⁄32″ | Transcription disc | 33+1⁄3 rpm | 15 min/side |
12 in (30 cm) | 11+7⁄8″ ±1⁄32″ | LP (Long Play) | 33+1⁄3 rpm | 22 min/side |
Maxi Single, 12-inch single |
45 rpm | 15 min/side | ||
Single | 78 rpm | 4–5 min/side. | ||
10 in (25 cm) | 9+7⁄8″ ±1⁄32″ | LP (Long Play) | 33+1⁄3 rpm | 12–15 min/side |
EP (Extended Play) | 45 rpm | 9–12 min/side | ||
Single | 78 rpm | 3 min/side | ||
7 in (18 cm) | 6+7⁄8″ ±1⁄32″ | EP (Extended Play) | 33+1⁄3 rpm | 7 min/side |
EP (Extended Play) | 45 rpm | 8 min/side | ||
Single | 45 rpm | 5+1⁄3 min/side |
- Notes:
- Columbia pressed many 7-inch 33+1⁄3 rpm vinyl singles in 1949, but were dropped in early 1950 due to the popularity of the RCA Victor 45.[83][full citation needed]
- Original hole diameters were 0.286″ ±0.001″ for 33+1⁄3 and 78.26 rpm records, and 1.504″ ±0.002″ for 45 rpm records.[84]
Less common formats
Flexi discs were thin flexible records that were distributed with magazines and as promotional gifts from the 1960s to the 1980s.
In March 1949, as RCA Victor released the 45, Columbia released several hundred 7-inch, 33+1⁄3 rpm, small-spindle-hole singles. This format was soon dropped as it became clear that the RCA Victor 45 was the single of choice and the Columbia 12-inch LP would be the album of choice.[85] The first release of the 45 came in seven colors: black 47-xxxx popular series, yellow 47-xxxx juvenile series, green (teal) 48-xxxx country series, deep red 49-xxxx classical series, bright red (cerise) 50-xxxx blues/spiritual series, light blue 51-xxxx international series, dark blue 52-xxxx light classics. Most colors were soon dropped in favor of black because of production problems. However, yellow and deep red were continued until about 1952.[86] The first 45 rpm record created for sale was "PeeWee the Piccolo" RCA Victor 47-0147 pressed in yellow translucent vinyl at the Sherman Avenue plant, Indianapolis on 7 December 1948, by R. O. Price, plant manager.[87]
In the 1970s, the government of Bhutan produced now-collectible postage stamps on playable vinyl mini-discs.[88]
Structure
Increasingly from the early 20th century, and almost exclusively since the 1920s, both sides of the record have been used to carry the grooves. Occasional records have been issued since then with a recording on only one side. In the 1980s Columbia records briefly issued a series of less expensive one-sided 45 rpm singles.[89]
Since its inception in 1948, vinyl record standards for the United States follow the guidelines of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).[90]
Vinyl quality
The sound quality and durability of vinyl records is highly dependent on the quality of the vinyl. During the early 1970s, as a cost-cutting move, much of the industry began reducing the thickness and quality of vinyl used in mass-market manufacturing. RCA Records marketed their lightweight LP as Dynaflex, which, at the time, was considered inferior by many record collectors.[91]
New or "virgin" heavy/heavyweight (180–220 g) vinyl is commonly used for modern audiophile vinyl releases in all genres. Many collectors prefer to have heavyweight vinyl albums, which have been reported to have better sound than normal vinyl because of their higher tolerance against deformation caused by normal play.[92]
Following the vinyl revival of the 21st century, select manufacturers adopted bioplastic-based records due to concerns over the environmental impact of widespread PVC use.[93][94]
Limitations
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2019) |
Shellac
One problem with shellac was that the size of the disks tended to be larger because it was limited to 80–100 groove walls per inch before the risk of groove collapse became too high, whereas vinyl could have up to 260 groove walls per inch.[95][96]
Vinyl
Although vinyl records are strong and do not break easily, they scratch due to its soft material sometimes resulting in ruining the record. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backward, creating a "locked groove" that repeats over and over. This is the origin of the phrase "like a broken record" or "like a scratched record", which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself.[97]
A further limitation of the gramophone record is that fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses; there is more vinyl per second available for fine reproduction of high frequencies at the large-diameter beginning of the groove than exist at the smaller diameters close to the end of the side. At the start of a groove on an LP there are 510 mm of vinyl per second traveling past the stylus while the ending of the groove gives 200–210 mm of vinyl per second—less than half the linear resolution.[98]
There is controversy about the relative quality of CD sound and LP sound when the latter is heard under the best conditions (see Comparison of analog and digital recording). One technical advantage with vinyl compared to the optical CD is that if correctly handled and stored, the vinyl record can be playable for decades and possibly centuries,[99] which is longer than some versions of the optical CD.[100] For vinyl records to be playable for years to come, they need to be handled with care and stored properly. Guidelines for proper vinyl storage include not stacking records on top of each other, avoiding heat or direct sunlight and placing them in a temperature-controlled area that help prevent vinyl records from warping and scratching. Collectors store their records in a variety of boxes, cubes, shelves and racks.[101]
Sound fidelity
At the time of the introduction of the compact disc (CD) in 1982, the stereo LP pressed in vinyl continued to suffer from a variety of limitations:
The stereo image was not made up of fully discrete Left and Right channels; each channel's signal coming out of the cartridge contained a small amount of the signal from the other channel, with more crosstalk at higher frequencies. High-quality disc cutting equipment was capable of making a master disc with 30–40 dB of stereo separation at 1,000 Hz, but the playback cartridges had lesser performance of about 20 to 30 dB of separation at 1000 Hz, with separation decreasing as frequency increased, such that at 12 kHz the separation was about 10–15 dB.[102] A common modern view is that stereo isolation must be higher than this to achieve a proper stereo soundstage. However, in the 1950s the BBC determined in a series of tests that only 20–25 dB is required for the impression of full stereo separation.[103]
Thin, closely spaced spiral grooves that allow for increased playing time on a 33+1⁄3 rpm microgroove LP lead to a tinny pre-echo warning of upcoming loud sounds. The cutting stylus unavoidably transfers some of the subsequent groove wall's impulse signal into the previous groove wall. It is discernible by some listeners throughout certain recordings, but a quiet passage followed by a loud sound allows anyone to hear a faint pre-echo of the loud sound occurring 1.8 seconds ahead of time.[104]
LP versus CD
Audiophiles have differed over the relative merits of the LP versus the CD since the digital disc was introduced.[105] In large part, the claim for vinyl superiority is due to the necessity for digital recordings to presume upper and lower bounds, sampling the tones and soundwaves within those limits and using the resulting information to store and recall the audio. Effectively, the digital recording is an idealized representation of a physical soundwave, while an analog recording captures the physical vibrations across their full frequency. Because most modern vinyl records are made from playbacks of files recorded digitally, there is no out-of-bounds audio to transfer to the disc.[106] Vinyl's drawbacks, however, include surface noise, less resolution due to a lower dynamic range, and greater sensitivity to handling.[107] Modern anti-aliasing filters and oversampling systems used in digital recordings have eliminated perceived problems observed with early CD players.[108]
There is a theory that vinyl records can audibly represent higher frequencies than compact discs, though most of this is noise and not relevant to human hearing. According to
Preservation
As the playing of gramophone records causes gradual degradation of the recording, they are best preserved by transferring them onto other media and playing the records as rarely as possible. They need to be stored on edge, and do best under environmental conditions that most humans would find comfortable.[111]
Where old disc recordings are considered to be of artistic or historic interest, from before the era of tape or where no tape master exists, archivists play back the disc on suitable equipment and record the result, typically onto a digital format, which can be copied and manipulated to remove analog flaws without any further damage to the source recording. For example, Nimbus Records uses a specially built horn record player to transfer 78s.[112] Anyone can do this using a standard record player with a suitable pickup, a phono-preamp (pre-amplifier) and a typical personal computer. However, for accurate transfer, professional archivists carefully choose the correct stylus shape and diameter, tracking weight, equalisation curve and other playback parameters and use high-quality analogue-to-digital converters.[113]
As an alternative to playback with a stylus, a recording can be read optically, processed with software that calculates the velocity that the stylus would be moving in the mapped grooves and converted to a digital recording format. This does no further damage to the disc and generally produces a better sound than normal playback. This technique also has the potential to allow for reconstruction of broken or otherwise damaged discs.[114]
Current status
This section needs to be updated.(April 2018) |
Groove recordings, first designed in the final quarter of the 19th century, held a predominant position for nearly a century—withstanding competition from
In spite of their flaws, such as the lack of portability, records still have enthusiastic supporters. Vinyl records continue to be manufactured and sold today.[121]
In the United Kingdom, the popularity of indie rock caused sales of new vinyl records (particularly 7 inch singles) to increase significantly in 2006.[122][123]
In the United States, annual vinyl sales increased by 85.8% between 2006 and 2007, although starting from a low base,[124] and by 89% between 2007 and 2008.[125] However, sales increases have moderated over recent years falling to less than 10% during 2017.[126]
Figures released in the United States in early 2009 showed that sales of vinyl albums nearly doubled in 2008, with 1.88 million sold—up from just under 1 million in 2007.[127] In 2009, 3.5 million units sold in the United States, including 3.2 million albums, the highest number since 1998.[128][129]
Sales have continued to rise into the 2010s, with around 2.8 million sold in 2010, which is the most sales since record keeping began in 1991, when vinyl had been overshadowed by
In 2021,
In 2011, the Entertainment Retailers Association in the United Kingdom found that consumers were willing to pay on average £16.30 (€19.37, US$25.81) for a single vinyl record, as opposed to £7.82 (€9.30, US$12.38) for a CD and £6.80 (€8.09, US$10.76) for a digital download.[132]
In 2015 the sales of vinyl records went up 32%, to $416 million, their highest level since 1988.[133] There were 31.5 million vinyl records sold in 2015, and the number has increased annually ever since 2006.[134] Vinyl sales continued to grow in 2017, comprising 14% of all physical album sales. The number one vinyl LP sold was the re-release of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.[135]
According to the RIAA's midyear report in 2020, phonograph record revenues surpassed those of CDs for the first time since the 1980s.[136]
Countries | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Global Trade Value US$ (SP & LP) |
$55m | $66m | $73m | $89m | $116m[137] | |||||||||
Australia (SP & LP) |
10,000 | 17,996[138] | 10,000 | 19,608[139] | 10,000 | 53,766[140] | 13,677 | 39,644[141] | 13,637 | 44,876[141] | 21,623 | 77,934[142] | ||
Germany (SP & LP) |
400,000[143] | 700,000[131] | 1,200,000[131] | 635,000 (LPs only) |
700,000 (LPs only)[144][145] |
1,000,000 (LPs only) | ||||||||
Finland (SP & LP) |
10,301[146] | 13,688[147] | 15,747[148] | 27,515[149] | 54,970[150] | 47,811[151] | ||||||||
Hungary (LP) |
2,974[152] | 2,923[153] | 3,763[154] | 1,879[155] | 8,873[156] | 9,819[157] | ||||||||
Japan (SP & LP) |
– | – | 103,000 | 105,000[158] | – | |||||||||
Netherlands (LP) |
– | – | 51,000 | 60,400 | 81,000[159] | |||||||||
Spain (LP) |
– | 40,000 | 106,000[160] | 97,000 | 141,000[161] | 135,000[162] | ||||||||
Sweden (LP) |
11,000[163] | 22,000[163] | 36,000[163] | 70,671[163] | 108,883[163] | 173,124[163] | ||||||||
United Kingdom (SP & LP) |
1,843,000 | 205,000 | 740,000 | 209,000 | 332,000 | 219,000 | 219,000 | 234,000 | 186,000 | 337,000[164] | – | 389,000[165] | ||
United States (LP) |
988,000 | 1,880,000[166] | 2,500,000[167] | 2,800,000[168] | 3,900,000[169] | 4,600,000[170] | ||||||||
|
Less common recording formats
VinylVideo
VinylVideo is a format to store a low resolution
Capacitance Electronic Disc
Another example is the Capacitance Electronic Disc, a color video format, slightly better than VHS.[184]
See also
- Capacitance Electronic Disc (CED)
- Conservation and restoration of vinyl discs
- LP album
- The New Face of Vinyl: Youth's Digital Devolution (photo documentary)
- Phonograph cylinder
- Record Store Day
- Sound recording and reproduction
- Unusual types of gramophone records
References
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repetitive sounds .. this means the record SKIPS its groove
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we have talked about this before, year in and year out
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Howard H. Scott, who was part of the team at Columbia Records that introduced the long-playing vinyl record in 1948 before going on to produce albums with the New York Philharmonic, Glenn Gould, Isaac Stern and many other giants of classical music, died on Sept. 22 in Reading, Pa. He was 92. ...
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- groove echo—the mightiest crescendo, free from distortion. Sound without breathing, pumping, or other ill side effects.
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- ^ (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021. (4 pages) (NB. Includes a detailed description of the UC system characteristics and a reference schematic developed by Milde, similar to the circuitry used in the Ziphona HMK-PA2223. According to the author he later also developed an improved version utilizing more modern ICs.)
- ^ DDR entwickelter, breitbandiger Kompander zur Codierung von Schallplatten. Das UC-Kompandersystem (universal compatible) nutzt die Möglichkeit durch den Einsatz sogenannter Logarithmierer, den Verstärkungsvorgang fließend zu gestalten und ein abruptes Umschalten bei niedrigen Signalpegeln zu vermeiden. Durch einen sich kontinuierlich wandelnden Kompressionsgrad von 5:3 (0 dB) bis 1:1 (−20 dB) erzielt man eine effektive Störunterdrückung von 10 dB. Die Expansion erfolgt spiegelverkehrt. Auch ohne den Einsatz eines entsprechenden UC-Expanders bleiben durch das"fließende"Verfahren die Ein- und Ausklingvorgänge in ihrer Homogenität und auch die Raumabbildung der Tonaufzeichnung weitestgehend erhalten. Die gewinnbringende Nutzung des UC-Kompanderverfahrens stellt den Anwender vor ein kaum lösbares Problem, da die ökonomischen Rahmenbedingungen und die zentrale Planung der Geräteentwicklung in der DDR die Herstellung eines Serienproduktes untergruben. Letztlich existieren nur einige Labormuster in den Händen der an dem Verfahren beteiligten Entwickler. Ein Versuch nach 1990, mit dem Verfahren erneut Fuß zu fassen, scheiterte an der international bereits von der Industrie vollzogenen, umfassenden Digitalisierung der Heimwiedergabe. Vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten wurden in den Jahren 1983 bis 1990 weit mehr als 500 verschiedene UC-codierte Schallplatten der Marken Eterna und Amigaveröffentlicht. Alle entsprechend aufgezeichneten Schallplatten tragen im Spiegel der Auslaufrille zusätzlich zur Matrizengravur ein U. Auf eine äußere, gut sichtbare Kennzeichnung wurde, im Sinne der hervorragenden Kompatibilität des Verfahrens bei einer konventionellen Wiedergabe und in Ermangelung verfügbarer UC-Expander für den Heimgebrauch, verzichtet.
- ^ wav-format digitalisierte Schallplattenaufnahme bearbeiten können, um nun endlich den Klang genießen zu können, den Sie damals erworben haben. Bis dahin gibt es aber noch eine Schwierigkeit. Zur richtigen Einstellung des Programmes benötigen Sie eine Schallplatte, auf der ein Bezugspegelton aufgezeichnet ist, wie das bei den, dem Plattenspieler beiliegenen, Testplatten der Fall war. […] (NB. Describes a software implementation of an UC expander as a program ". Also shows a picture of the "U" engraving in the silent inner groove indicating UC encoded vinyl disks.)
UCExpander.exe
" for Microsoft Windows - direct drive turntablewith built-in UC expander, with the frontpanel showing a "UC" logo (for "Universal Compander").)
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Further reading
- Fadeyev, V.; C. Haber (2003). "Reconstruction of mechanically recorded sound by image processing" (PDF). Audio Engineering Society. 51 (December): 1172.
- Lawrence, Harold; "Mercury Living Presence". Compact disc liner notes. Bartók, Antal Dorati, Mercury 432 017–2. 1991.
- International standard IEC 60098: Analogue audio disk records and reproducing equipment. Third edition, International Electrotechnical Commission, 1987.
- College Physics, Sears, Zemansky, Young, 1974, LOC #73-21135, chapter: "Acoustic Phenomena"
- Powell, James R., Jr. The Audiophile's Technical Guide to 78 rpm, Transcription, and Microgroove Recordings. 1992; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-2-8
- Powell, James R., Jr. Broadcast Transcription Discs. 2001; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-4-4
- Powell, James R., Jr. and Randall G. Stehle. Playback Equalizer Settings for 78 rpm Recordings. Third Edition. 1993, 2001, 2007; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-3-6
- Scholes, Percy A. The Oxford Companion to Music. Ninth edition, Oxford University Press, 1955.
- From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph by Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch
- The Fabulous Phonograph by Roland Gelatt, published by Cassell & Company, 1954 rev. 1977 ISBN 0-304-29904-9
- Where Have All the Good Times Gone?: The Rise and Fall of the Record Industry Louis Barfe.
- Pressing the LP Record by Ellingham, Niel, published at 1 Bruach Lane, PH16 5DG, Scotland.
- Sound Recordings by ISBN 0-7123-0225-5.
- Vinyl: A History of the Analogue Record by Richard Osborne. Ashgate, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4094-4027-7.
- "A Record Changer and Record of Complementary Design" by B. H. Carson, A. D. Burt, and H. I. Reiskind, RCA Review, June 1949
- "Recording Technology History: notes revised July 6, 2005, by Steven Schoenherr", University of San Diego (archived 2010)
External links
- Playback equalization for 78 rpm shellacs and early LPs (EQ curves, index of record labels): Audacity Wiki
- The manufacturing and production of shellac records. Educational video, 1942.
- Reproduction of 78 rpm records including equalization data for different makes of 78s and LPs.
- The Secret Society of Lathe Trolls, a site devoted to all aspects of the making of Gramophone records.
- How to digitize gramophone records: Audacity Tutorial
- Actual list of vinyl pressing plants: vinyl-pressing-plants.com
- Dedicated museum for sound history: Musée des ondes Emile Berliner, Montreal, Canada
- Smart Vinyl: The First Computerized
- Semi-automatic metadata extraction from shellac and vinyl disc
- Vinyl Player 2.0