Grand Duchy of Tuscany
Grand Duchy of Tuscany Magnus Ducatus Etruriae () | |
---|---|
1569–1860 | |
Motto: Sotto una Fede et Legge un Signor solo ( Roman Catholicism (official) | |
Government |
|
Cosimo I de' Medici (first) | |
• 1859–1860 | Ferdinand IV of Habsburg-Lorraine (last) |
History | |
• Cosimo I is elevated by a papal bull to Grand Duke of Tuscany | 27 August 1569 |
• End of Medici rule | 9 July 1737 |
21 March 1801 | |
9 June 1815 | |
• Deposition of the Habsburgs | 16 August 1859 |
• Merged to form the United Provinces of Central Italy | 8 December 1859 |
• Formally annexed to after a plebiscite Kingdom of Sardinia | 22 March 1860 |
Population | |
• 1801 | 1,096,641[1] |
Currency |
|
Today part of | Italy |
The Grand Duchy of Tuscany (
Having brought nearly all
Medici period
Foundation
In 1569,
The international reaction to Cosimo's elevation was bleak. Queen Catherine of France, though herself a Medici, viewed Cosimo with the utmost disdain.[11] Rumours circulated at the Viennese court that had Cosimo as a candidate for King of England.[12] Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor and his cousin King Philip II of Spain reacted quite angrily, as Florence was in theory an Imperial fief and declared Pius V's actions invalid. However, Maximilian eventually confirmed the elevation with an Imperial diploma in 1576.[13] Subsequently, to end animosities with Maximilian, Cosimo "bought" the grand ducal title from him for 100,000 ducats.[14]
During the Holy League of 1571, Cosimo fought against the Ottoman Empire, siding with the other Catholic powers, such as Venice and the Spanish Empire. The Holy League inflicted a crushing defeat against the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto.[15] Cosimo's reign was one of the most militaristic Tuscany had ever seen.[16]
Cosimo experienced several personal tragedies during the later years of his reign. His wife,
Francesco and Ferdinando I
Francesco had little interest in governing his realm, instead participating in scientific experiments.[13] The administration of the state was delegated to bureaucrats. He continued his father's Austrian/Imperial alliance, cementing it by marrying Johanna of Austria.[18] Francesco is best remembered for dying on the same day as his second wife, Bianca Cappello, spurring rumours of poisoning.[18] He was succeeded by Ferdinando de' Medici, his younger brother, whom he loathed.[18]
Ferdinando eagerly assumed the government of Tuscany.
Ferdinando, despite no longer being a cardinal, exercised much influence at successive Papal conclaves; elections which chose the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church. In 1605, Ferdinando succeeded in getting his candidate, Alessandro de' Medici, elected as Pope Leo XI. Leo XI died less than a month later, but fortunately for the Medici his successor Pope Paul V was also pro-Medici.[24] Ferdinando's pro-Papal foreign policy, however, had drawbacks. Tuscany was overcome with religious orders, all of whom were not obliged to pay taxes. Ferdinando died in 1609, leaving an affluent realm; however, his inaction in international affairs drew Tuscany into the provincial yolk of politics.
Cosimo II and Ferdinando II
Ferdinando's elder son, Cosimo, mounted the throne following his death. Like his uncle, Francesco I, government held no appeal for him, and Tuscany was ruled by his ministers.[25] Cosimo II's twelve-year reign was punctuated by his contented marriage with Maria Maddalena and his patronage of astronomer Galileo Galilei.
When Cosimo died, his oldest son,
Ferdinando was obsessed with new technology, and had several hygrometers, barometers, thermometers, and telescopes installed in the Pitti.[28] In 1657, Leopoldo de' Medici, the Grand Duke's youngest brother, established the Accademia del Cimento, which set up to attract scientists from all over Tuscany to Florence for mutual study.[29]
Tuscany was one of the states of the
Tuscany participated in the Wars of Castro (the last time Medicean Tuscany proper was involved in a conflict) and inflicted a defeat on the forces of Pope Urban VIII in 1643.[31] The treasury was so empty that when the Castro mercenaries were paid for, the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds. The interest rate was lowered by 0.75%.[32] The economy was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural market places.[31] The exchequer was barely adequate to cover the state's current expenditure, resulting in a complete termination of banking operations for the Medici.[33] Ferdinando II died in 1670, succeeded by his oldest surviving son Cosimo.[34]
Cosimo III
Cosimo III's reign was characterised by drastic changes and a sharp decline of the Grand Duchy. Cosimo III was of a puritan character, banning May celebrations, forcing prostitutes to pay for licenses, and beheading sodomites. He also instituted several laws censoring education[35] and introduced anti-Jewish legislation.[36] He imposed crippling taxes[37] while the country's population continued to decline. By 1705, the grand ducal treasury was virtually bankrupt, and the population of Florence had declined by approximately 50%, while the population of the entire grand duchy had decreased by an estimated 40%.[38] The once powerful navy was reduced to a pitiful state.[39]
Cosimo frequently paid the Holy Roman Emperor, his feudal overlord, high dues.
Cosimo married
Cosimo contemplated restoring the Republic of Florence,[7][44] a decision that was complicated by the Grand Duchy's feudal status: Florence was an Imperial fief, Siena a Spanish one.[7] The plan was about to be approved by the powers convened at Geertruidenberg when Cosimo abruptly added that if himself and his two sons predeceased his daughter, the Electress Palatine, she should succeed and the republic be re-instituted following her death.[45] The proposal sank, and ultimately died with Cosimo in 1723.
The last years of the Medicis
As Grand Prince Ferdinando, Gian Gastone's elder brother, predeceased Cosimo III, Gian Gastone succeeded his father in 1723. Gian Gastone for most of his life, kept to his bed and acted in an unregal manner, rarely appearing to his subjects, to the extent that, at times, he had been thought dead. Gian Gastone would repeal his father's puritan laws.[46] In 1731, the Powers gathered at Vienna to decide who would succeed Gian Gastone. They drew up the Treaty of Vienna, which gave the grand ducal throne to Don Carlos, Duke of Parma. Gian Gastone was not as steadfast in negotiating Tuscany's future as his father was. He capitulated to foreign demands, and instead of endorsing the claim to the throne of his closest male relative, the Prince of Ottajano, he allowed Tuscany to be bestowed upon Don Carlos. During the War of the Polish Succession, Don Carlos conquered the Kingdom of Naples and was forced to give up the Tuscan succession by the Treaty of Vienna (1738). Soon after, Francis Stephen of Lorraine became heir to the Tuscan throne. Gian Gastone had no say in events and had become quite attached to the Spanish Infante. The Tuscans despised the new occupying "Lorrainers", as they interfered with the Tuscan government, while the occupying Spaniards had not done so.[47] On 9 July 1737, Gian Gastone died; the last male Medici of the grand ducal line.[48]
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
Francis Stephen
Francis I (as Francis Stephen became known) lived in Florence briefly with his wife, the
The administrative structure of the grand duchy itself would see little change under Francis I. Since their accession to the throne of Grand Dukes, however, the
In 1763, when nuptial agreements for the marriage of the imperial couple's second surviving son, Leopold, and the Infanta of Spain, Maria Luisa of Bourbon, were stipulated, Tuscany was erected into a secundogeniture.[50] Thus, upon the death of Francis I, it was Leopold who directly succeeded him on the throne of the Grand Duchy.[51]
Reform
Leopold, usually referred to in Italy as "Pietro Leopoldo", ruled the country until his brother Joseph's death and his own election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1790. He was unpopular among his subjects, though his many reforms brought the Grand Duchy to a level of stability that had not been seen in quite a while.[51]
Leopold developed and supported many social and economic reforms. He revamped the taxation and tariff system.[51] Smallpox vaccination was made systematically available (Leopold's mother Maria Theresa had been a huge supporter of inoculation against smallpox), and an early institution for the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents was founded. Leopold also abolished capital punishment. On 30 November 1786, after having de facto blocked capital executions (the last was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. Torture was also banned.[52]
Leopold also introduced radical reforms to the system of neglect and inhumane treatment of the mentally ill. On 23 January 1774, the legge sui pazzi (law regarding the insane) was established, the first of its kind to be introduced in Europe, allowing steps to be taken to hospitalize individuals deemed insane. A few years later Leopold undertook the project of building a new hospital, the Bonifacio. He used his skill at choosing collaborators to put a young physician, Vincenzo Chiarugi, at its head. Chiarugi and his collaborators introduced new humanitarian regulations in the running of the hospital and caring for the mentally ill patients, including banning the use of chains and physical punishment, and in so doing have been recognized as early pioneers of what later came to be known as the moral treatment movement.[53]
Leopold attempted to secularize the property of the religious houses or to put the clergy entirely under the control of the government. These measures, which disturbed the deeply rooted convictions of his people and brought him into collision with the pope, were not successful.
Leopold also approved and collaborated on the development of a political constitution, said to have anticipated by many years the promulgation of the French constitution and which presented some similarities with the
Tuscany during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Leopold was succeeded by
Etruria lasted less than a decade. By the
Tuscany restored and its final demise
The Napoleonic system collapsed in 1814, and the following territorial settlement agreed to at the
Following Ferdinand's death, his elder son,
In Leopold's years Italy was engulfed in popular rebellion, culminating in the Revolutions of 1848. The said revolution toppled the throne of France, and caused disarray across Europe. In Tuscany, Leopold II sanctioned a liberal constitution; and instituted a liberal ministry. Despite his attempts at acquiescence, street fighting in opposition to the regime sprang up in August, in Livorno. Leopold II lent his support to the Kingdom of Sardinia in the First Italian War of Independence. In February 1849, Leopold II had to abandon Tuscany to republicans and sought refuge in the Neapolitan city of Gaeta. A provisional republic was established in his stead. It was only with Austrian assistance that Leopold could return to Florence. The constitution was revoked in 1852.[56] The Austrian garrison was withdrawn in 1855.
The
In December 1859, the Grand Duchy was joined to the Duchies of
Government
Tuscany was divided into two main administrative districts: the stato nuovo (the new state) consisting of the former
Following the Republic's surrender in the
Over time, the Medici acquired several territories, which included: the County of
Gian Gastone, the last Medici, resigned the grand duchy to Francis Stephen of Lorraine. Under him, Tuscany was ruled by a
Military
Army
In addition to its regular army, the duchy maintained a citizen-militia. This was used both for the protection of towns and fortresses that the army was not able to garrison, and as a reserve from which semi-trained men would be drawn into the army.[64] The militia had its origins in 1498, in the predecessor state of the Florentine Republic. By 1506, it numbered 20,000 men, of whom 70% carried pikes, 20% halberds/bills and hog-spears, and 10% either arquebuses or crossbows.[65] However, the size and quality of the duchy's militia varied throughout its existence, as did its army.
From 1553 to 1559, Tuscany raised 30,000 troops for their participation in the Last Italian War, which saw the Republic of Siena being added to the duchy. For the decades thereafter, the grand dukes only maintained a peacetime force of 2,500 soldiers, 500 cavalry to patrol the coasts and 2,000 infantry to man castles (Cosimo I having significantly expanded Tuscany's fortification network in an effort to defend the country). An anonymous Venetian intelligence report from the late 16th century stated that Tuscany could spend 800,000 ducats annually on war (half as much as the Spanish-held Kingdom of Naples despite having a quarter of its population), and could raise 40,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, counting soldiers, militia, and mercenaries from nearby Corsica and Romagna, a force massively out of proportion to its population. Hanlon considers the report overly optimistic, but with some basis in fact.[66]
In response to the Türkenkriege during the Long Turkish War starting in 1593, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany sent 100,000 scudi and 3,600 soldiers (3,000 infantry and 600 cavalry) to support the Holy Roman Emperor in Hungary, plus smaller detachments thereafter (there were 2,000 Tuscans in the Imperial army in Hungary by 1601).[67] A Tuscan-Spanish treaty that bound the two at the end of the Italian Wars demanded that Tuscany send 5,000 troops to the Spanish army if ever the Duchy of Milan or Naples was attacked. In 1613, Cosimo II sent 2,000 infantry and 300 cavalry, along with an undisclosed number of Tuscan adventurers, to aid the Spanish after Savoy launched an invasion of the Duchy of Montferrat.[68]
In 1631, the grand duke sent 7,000 troops (6,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry) to join Wallenstein's army in support of the Emperor during the
Tuscany's economic and military strength cratered from the second half of the 17th century onward, which was reflected in the quality of its army; by 1740 it only consisted of a few thousand poorly-trained men and was considered impotent to such a degree that its Habsburgs rulers allowed enemy troops to cross the duchy unopposed.[72]
The grand duchy had two sources of naval power: the state navy and the Order of Saint Stephen.
In 1572 the Tuscan navy consisted of 11 galleys, 2 galleasses, 2 galleons, 6 frigates, and various transports, carrying in all 200 guns, manned by 100 knights, 900 seamen, and 2,500 oarsmen. With the end of Spanish subsidies, in 1574 the navy shrunk to 4 galleys. Grand Duke Ferdinand I sought to expand Tuscany's naval strength during his reign, and cooperated with the Order of Saint Stephen, which often blurred the line between itself and the Tuscan navy. The Order in 1604 counted among its fleet 6 galleys, 3 roundships/bertoni, 2 transports, 1 galleon, and 1 galleass, supplemented by other ships financed by corsairs flying the Tuscan banner. Ferdinand I expanded the Tuscan fleet after expanding the arsenal at Livorno, and oversaw many raids by both the navy and Order, including on Chios in 1599 (a failure), Preveza in 1605 (5 galleys with 400 Tuscan militia; a success), various Turkish ports in 1606 (6 galleys, some roundships, and 750 Tuscan soldiers; a success), and Bone in 1607 (8 galleys, 9 bertoni, and 1 galleon, with 2,300 soldiers; a success). From 1560 to 1609, the Tuscan fleet captured 76 galiots, 7 galleys, 2 large roundships, and 67 minor craft, taking 9,620 slaves and liberating 2,076 Christians. The preponderance of small vessels among the prizes indicates that most of the trophies were easy victories.[73]
The Tuscans were early pioneers in the deployment of roundships, as technology made manpower-heavy galleys less efficient. They launched several big ships at Portoferraio after 1601, with an armament of 40 guns each yet only 60 seamen each. 8 of them around 1610 floated a total of 200 guns. They began to raid independently of the galleys on long voyages to the Levant. In 1608, they intercepted a Turkish convoy of 42 vessels off Rhodes, seizing 9 and netting 600 slaves and a booty of 1 million ducats, equivalent to two years of revenue for the whole grand duchy. Under Grand Duke Cosimo II, 7 roundships carrying 1,800 soldiers were sent to the Mediterranean from 1609 to 1611. This expedition was less successful, costing 800 men and 4 ships disabled. The grand duke also enticed English corsairs in North Africa to use Livorno as a base instead, in exchange for amnesty and a share of their profits; Livorno quickly became a corsair capital, with the corsairs preying on both Muslim and Christian shipping.[74]
After 1612, the Tuscans progressively stopped sending out expeditions and limited their naval operations to patrols. This can be observed in the register of prizes of the Order of Saint Stephen. It lists some 238 vessels captured from 1563 to 1688; enemy galleys captured from 1568 to 1599 were 11 (for the loss of an identical number), and another 17 were seized between 1602 and 1635. Only 1 was captured after 1635. A notable incident in this time was a naval battle off Sardinia in October 1624, in which 15 Tuscan, Papal, and Neapolitan galleys converged on a flotilla of 5 Algerian pirate vessels (including a large flagship). In the 10-hour battle, punctuated by cannon fire and boarding actions, 600 pirates were killed or captured and they lost 4 of the 5 ships (3 sunk, 1 captured), while the Italians lost 60 dead.[75]
In 1686, Tuscany sent 4 galleys, 4 galiots, and 2 other vessels carrying 870 soldiers to participate in the Morean War (a battalion of 400 Tuscans were already serving there). In 1687 the Tuscans sent an additional 4 galleys, plus 2 hired foreign galleys, carrying 860 more soldiers, including German mercenaries. In 1688, another 6 galleys and 860 soldiers joined the fray. All three contingents suffered high casualties, a third for the first two and over half for the third.[76]
Flags and coats of arms
-
Flag of Grand Duchy of Tuscany
(1562–1737) -
Coat of arms
(1562–1737)
-
Imperial Banner of the HRE as state/naval flag
(1749–1765) -
State flag with Lesser Coat of arms
(1815–1848, 1849–1860) -
State flag with Great Coat of arms
(1765–1800, 1815–1848, 1849–1860)[77] -
Flag of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
(1848–1849) -
Lesser Coat of arms
(1815–1848, 1849–1860) -
Great Coat of arms
(1765–1800, 1815–1848, 1849–1860)[77] -
Naval flag
(1737–1749) -
Civil flag and civil ensign
(1815–1848, 1849–1860)
See also
- History of Tuscany
- List of rulers of Tuscany
- List of Tuscan consorts
- Grand Princes of Tuscany
- Grand Princesses of Tuscany
Citations
- ^ United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; House of Commons, John Bowring, 1839, p. 6.
- ISBN 978-0-09-952297-3. pp. 315–321.
- ^ Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce (1862). Popolazione censimento degli antichi Stati sardi (1. gennaio 1858) e censimenti di Lombardia, di Parma e di Modena (1857–1858) pubblicati per cura del Ministero d'agricoltura, industria e commercio: Relazione generale con una introduzione storica sopra i censimenti delle popolazioni italiane dai tempi antichi sino all'anno 1860. 1.1 (in Italian). Stamperia Reale.
- ^ "bolla papale di Pio V". archeologiavocidalpassato (in Italian). Retrieved 2021-02-10.
- ^ "Cosimo I | duke of Florence and Tuscany [1519–1574]". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-02-10.
- ^ "COSIMO III de' Medici, granduca di Toscana". Dizionario Biografico (in Italian). Retrieved 2020-04-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h François Velde (4 July 2005). "The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany". heraldica.org. Retrieved 2009-08-19.
- ^ a b Strathern, p. 340.
- ^ Strathern, p. 335.
- ^ Strathern, pp. 375, 381.
- ISBN 0-7538-2039-0, pp. 268–269.
- ^ Booth, Cecily: Cosimo I – Duke of Florence, University Press, 1921 (pre-dates use of the ISBN), p. 232.
- ^ ISBN 1-84212-456-0, p. 145.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 81.
- ^ Frieda, pp. 271–272.
- ^ Candidi, Vieri Tommasi (2018-07-17). "Cosimo I de' Medici: nel 1569 il primo Granduca di Toscana". TuscanyPeople (in Italian). Retrieved 2023-05-03.
- ^ Strathern, pp. 340–341.
- ^ a b c Hale, p. 147.
- ^ a b Hale, p. 151.
- ^ a b c d Hale, p. 150.
- ^ Austria and Spain were ruled by the House of Habsburg; the two are interchangeable terms for the time period in question.
- ^ Hale, p. 158.
- ^ a b Hale, p. 160.
- ^ Hale, p. 165.
- ^ Hale, p. 187.
- ^ Strathern, pp. 375–377, 380–381.
- ^ Acton, p. 30.
- ^ Acton, p. 27.
- ^ Acton, p. 38.
- ^ Hanlon, pp. 97–98.
- ^ a b Hale, p. 180.
- ^ Hale, p. 181.
- ^ Strathern, p. 381.
- ^ Strathern, p. 382.
- ^ Strathern, p. 391.
- ^ Acton, pp. 140–141.
- ^ Acton, p. 185.
- ^ Strathern, p. 392.
- ^ Strathern, pp. 390–391.
- ^ Acton, p. 243.
- ^ Acton, pp. 272–273.
- ^ Strathern, p. 400.
- ^ Joachim Whaley, "Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume II: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648-1806", from the Oxford History of Early Modern Europe, p. 137.
- ^ Acton, p. 254.
- ^ Acton, p. 255.
- ^ Strathern, pp. 402–405.
- ^ Strathern, pp. 408–409.
- ^ Strathern, p. 410.
- ^ Gregory Hanlon. "The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560-1800." Routledge: 1997. Page 322.
- . Retrieved 19 December 2023.
- ^ a b c "Leopold II (holy Roman emperor) -- Encyclopædia Britannica". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2009-10-11.
- ^ a b Woolrych, Humphry William: The history and results of the present capital punishments in England; to which are added, full tables of convictions, executions, etc, Saunders and Benning, 1832, (pre-dates use of the ISBN), p. 42.
- ^ Mora, G. (1959) Vincenzo Chiarugi (1759–1820) and his psychiatric reform in Florence in the late 18th century (on the occasion of the bi-centenary of his birth) J Hist Med.
- ISBN 978-1-57607-091-8, p 142.
- ^ H. A. L. Fisher, "The French Dependencies and Switzerland", in A. Ward et al. (eds.), Cambridge Modern History, IX: Napoleon (Cambridge, 1934), p. 399.
- ^ a b c d Catholic Encyclopaedia. "Tuscany". newadvent.org. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^ "Leopold II (grand duke of Tuscany) -- Encyclopædia Britannica". Britannica.com. Retrieved 26 September 2009.
- ^ Hale, p. 118.
- ^ a b Hale, p. 119.
- ^ Hale, p. 121.
- ^ Hale, p. 153.
- ^ Hale, p. 178.
- ^ Acton, pp. 207–208.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 139.
- ^ Delbrück, Hans (1990) [1920]. "The Dawn of Modern Warfare. History of the Art of War." IV. Transl. Walter J. Renfroe, Jr. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Page 102.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 63.
- ^ Hanlon, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 65.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 97.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 132.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 139.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 322.
- ^ Hanlon, pp. 38–40.
- ^ Hanlon, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Hanlon. pp. 41–42.
- ^ Hanlon, p. 139.
- ^ a b Bandiere degli Stati italiani preunitari: Toscana.
Bibliography
- Acton, Harold: The Last Medici, Macmillan, London, 1980, ISBN 0-333-29315-0
- Strathern, Paul: The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance, Vintage books, London, 2003, ISBN 978-0-09-952297-3
- Hale, J. R.: Florence and the Medici, Orion books, London, 1977, ISBN 1-84212-456-0
- Frieda, Leonie: Catherine de' Medici, Orion books, London, 2005, ISBN 0-7538-2039-0
- Booth, Cecily: Cosimo I – Duke of Florence, University Press, 1921
- Woolrych, Humphry William: The history and results of the present capital punishments in England; to which are added, full tables of convictions, executions, etc., Saunders and Benning, 1832, (pre-dates use of the ISBN)
- Jackson-Laufer, Guida Myrl: Women Rulers Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Guide, ABC-CLIO, 1999, ISBN 978-1-57607-091-8
- Parliamentary papers, Volume 16 By the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Parliament. House of Commons – Report on the Grand Duchy of Tuscany – John Bowring – 1839
External links