Great Barrier Reef
UNESCO World Heritage Site | |
---|---|
Location | Off the east coast of the Queensland mainland, Australia |
Criteria | Natural: vii, viii, ix, x |
Reference | 154 |
Inscription | 1981 (5th Session) |
Area | 34,870,000 ha (86,200,000 acres) |
Website | www |
Coordinates | 18°17′S 147°42′E / 18.283°S 147.700°E |
Locator map of the protected area |
The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest
A large part of the reef is protected by the
The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the
A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought, seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 (section 54) stipulates an Outlook Report on the Reef's health, pressures, and future every five years. The last report was published in 2019.
The Australian Institute of Marine Science conducts annual surveys of the Great Barrier Reef's status, and the 2022 report showed the greatest recovery in 36 years. It is mainly due to the regrowth of two-thirds of the reef by the fast-growing Acropora coral, which is the dominant coral there.[24]
"Discovery" and naming
The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the
The first European to sight the Great Barrier Reef was James Cook in 1770, who sailed and mapped the east coast of Australia. On 11 June 1770 Cook's ship, HMS Endeavour, ran aground on a shoal south of the present-day location of Cooktown, requiring seven weeks to repair.
It was Matthew Flinders who named the Great Barrier Reef, after his more detailed mapping of it in 1802.[25][26] Flinders used various terms to describe the reefs comprising what we now call the Great Barrier Reef including "great reef", for one such reef, "barrier reef", for any reef preventing a sailing vessel in, or waves from, the open sea, from reaching the coast, and "Barrier Reefs", for the collection of such reefs.[26]
Geology and geography
The Great Barrier Reef is a distinct feature of the
The
Reefs can increase in diameter by 1 to 3 centimetres (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they grow only above a depth of 150 metres (490 ft) due to their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level.
The land that formed the substrate of the current Great Barrier Reef was a coastal plain formed from the eroded sediments of the Great Dividing Range with some larger hills (most of which were themselves remnants of older reefs[32] or, in rare cases, volcanoes[30]: 26 ).[30]: 18 The Reef Research Centre, a
From 20,000 years ago until 6,000 years ago,
The remains of an ancient barrier reef similar to the Great Barrier Reef can be found in
The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area has been divided into 70
Wonky holes can have localised impact on the reef, providing upwellings of fresh water, sometimes rich in nutrients contributing to eutrophication.[41][42]
Ecology
The Great Barrier Reef supports an extraordinary diversity of life, including many vulnerable or endangered species, some of which may be endemic to the reef system.[43][44]
Thirty species of
Six species of
215 species of birds (including 22 species of seabirds and 32 species of shorebirds) visit the reef or nest or roost on the islands,[30]: 450–451 including the white-bellied sea eagle and roseate tern.[45] Most nesting sites are on islands in the northern and southern regions of the Great Barrier Reef, with 1.4 to 1.7 million birds using the sites to breed.[55][56] The islands of the Great Barrier Reef also support 2,195 known plant species; three of these are endemic. The northern islands have 300–350 plant species which tend to be woody, whereas the southern islands have 200 which tend to be herbaceous; the Whitsunday region is the most diverse, supporting 1,141 species. The plants are propagated by birds.[54]
There are at least 330 species of
Environmental threats
Climate change
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority considers the greatest threat to the Great Barrier Reef to be climate change, causing
In July 2017 UNESCO published in a draft decision, expressing serious concern about the impact of coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef. The draft decision also warned Australia that it will not meet the targets of the Reef 2050 report without considerable work to improve water quality.[69]
Climate change has implications for other forms of reef life – some fish's preferred temperature range leads them to seek new habitat, thus increasing chick mortality in predatory seabirds. Climate change will also affect the sea turtle's population and available habitat.[70]
Bleaching events in benthic coral communities (deeper than 20 metres or 66 feet) in the Great Barrier reef are not as well documented as those at shallower depths, but recent research has shown that benthic communities are just as negatively impacted in the face of rising ocean temperatures. Five Great Barrier Reef species of large benthic corals were found bleached under elevated temperatures, affirming that benthic corals are vulnerable to thermal stress.[71]
Pollution
Another key threat faced by the Great Barrier Reef is
According to a 2016 report, while higher regulation contributes to less overall pollution from "other land uses, such as industrial, mining, port development, dredging and urban development", these can still be locally significant.[74] Sediments containing high levels of copper and other heavy metals sourced from the Ok Tedi Mine in Papua New Guinea are a potential pollution risk for the far northern Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait regions.[75] Some 67% of corals died in the reef's worst-hit northern section, the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies report said.[76]
Loss of coastal wetland
The runoff problem is exacerbated by the loss of coastal wetlands which act as a natural filter for toxins and help deposit sediment.[77][78][79] It is thought that the poor water quality is due to increased light and oxygen competition from algae.[80]
Eutrophication
Farming fertiliser runoff release
Fertilizers also increase the amount of phytoplankton available for the crown-of-thorns starfish larvae to consume. A study showed that a doubling of the chlorophyll in the water leads to a tenfold increase in the crown-of-thorns starfish larvae's survival rate.[73]
Sediment runoff
Sediment runoff from farming carries chemicals into the reef environment also reduces the amount of light available to the corals decreasing their ability to extract energy from their environment.[73]
Pesticides
Pesticides used in farming are made up of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic and other toxins are released into the wider environment due to erosion of farm soil, which has a detrimental effect on the coral.[73]
Pollution from mining
Mining company Queensland Nickel discharged nitrate-laden water into the Great Barrier Reef in 2009 and 2011 – on the later occasion releasing 516 tonnes (508 long tons; 569 short tons) of waste water. The
Crown of thorns
The crown-of-thorns starfish preys on coral polyps. Large outbreaks of these starfish can devastate reefs. In 2000, an outbreak contributed to a loss of 66% of live coral cover on sampled reefs in a study by the Reef Research Centre (RRC).[82] Outbreaks are believed to occur in natural cycles, worsened by poor water quality and overfishing of the starfish's predators.[82][83]
Overfishing
The unsustainable
Shipping
Shipping accidents are a pressing concern, as several commercial shipping routes pass through the Great Barrier Reef.[86] Although the route through the Great Barrier Reef is not easy, reef pilots consider it safer than outside the reef in the event of mechanical failure, since a ship can sit safely while being repaired.[87] There have been over 1,600 known shipwrecks in the Great Barrier Reef region.[88] On 3 April 2010, the bulk coal carrier Shen Neng 1 ran aground on Douglas Shoals,[89] spilling up to four tonnes of oil into the water and causing extensive damage to the reef.[90]
Shark culling
The government of
Protection and preservation: Reef 2050 plan
In March 2015, the Australian and
However, whereas the 2050 plan aims to incorporate protective measures such as improving water quality, reef restoration, killing of predatory starfish, it does not incorporate additional measures to address what may be the root cause the problem – climate change, which is caused by greenhouse gas emissions. As such, experts doubted whether it would be enough to save the fragile environment.[69][98][99] Another issue is that the time left to the 1.5 °C warming threshold (the temperature limit that coral reefs can still cope with[100]) is very limited.[101]
As part of the Reef 2050 plan, an AUD$443 million grant was given to the Great Barrier Reef Foundation in 2018. The announcement of the grant was subject to backlash as the grant had avoided proper tender and transparency processes.
Conservation Policy: Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan
The Great Barrier Reef contributes to the overall wellbeing of the marine biome.[102] Numerous species of aquatic plants, fish and megafauna use the reef for feeding, shelter and mating.[103] Threats such as ocean acidification, pollution runoff and outbreaks of destructive species like the crown-of-thorns starfish have brought about the decline of this ecosystem.[104] These threats to the reef are not only a danger to the organisms inhabiting it, but also the economy of this region, a large part of which relies on revenue from ecotourism of the Great Barrier Reef.[105]
The Australian government has had the goal of protecting this World Heritage Site since 1972 when they created The Australian Institute of Marine Science.[106] The Australian and Queensland governments have contributed about $142.5 million to their National Environmental Science Program which is how they've collected much of their data regarding threats to the Great Barrier Reef.[106] In addition, the Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan was announced in 2018 in order to help transition local communities, agricultural organizations and industries to more sustainable practices.[107] This plan will join the Queensland government and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority to manage the amounts of runoff that reach the Great Barrier Reef as well as mitigating crown-of-thorns starfish population flare-ups.[107]
Human use
The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the
In 1768
Management
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2013) |
This article possibly contains original research. It is better to remove non-cited information (September 2017) |
Royal Commissions disallowed oil drilling in the Great Barrier Reef, in 1975 the
In 1999, the Australian Parliament passed the
There are two steps to this process. The first step is to identify regional conservation priorities in the five (currently) different marine regions. The second step is to identify marine reserves (protected areas or marine parks) to be added to Australia's National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Like protected areas on land, marine reserves are created to protect biodiversity for generations to come. Marine reserves are identified based on criteria written in a document created by Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council called "Guidelines for establishing the national representative system of marine protected areas", also known as just "the Guidelines". These guidelines are nationally recognised and implemented at the local level based on the Australian policy for implementation outlined in the "Goals and Principles for the Establishment of the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas in Commonwealth Waters". These policies are in place to make sure that a marine reserve is only added to the NRSMPA after careful evaluation of different data.
The priorities for each region are created based on human and environmental threats and the Marine Bioregional Plans are drafted to address these priorities. To assess different region's priorities, three steps are taken, first, a bioregional profile is created, second, a bioregional plan is drafted, and third, the plan is finalised. After the plan is finalised, activity in different bioregions may become limited based on particular threats an activity may pose.[117]
In 2001, the GBRMPA released a report about the declining water quality in the Great Barrier Reef and detailed the importance of this issue. In response to this report, in 2003, the Australian and Queensland governments launched a joint initiative to improve the quality of water entering the Great Barrier Reef.
When the plan was introduced in October 2003, it originally contained 65 actions built on previous legislation. Their immediate goal was to halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the reef by 2013. By 2020, they hope that the quality of the water entering in the reef improves enough so that it doesn't have a detrimental impact on the health of the Great Barrier Reef. To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants in the water entering the reef and to rehabilitate and conserve areas of the reef that naturally help reduce water pollutants. To achieve the objectives described above, this plan focuses on non-point sources of pollution, which cannot be traced to a single source such as a waste outlet.
The plan specifically targets nutrients, pesticides and sediment that make their way into the reef as a result of agricultural activities. Other non-point sources of pollution that are attributed to urban areas are covered under different legislation. In 2009, the plan was updated. The updated version states that to date, none of the efforts undertaken to improve the quality of water entering the reef has been successful. The new plan attempts to address this issue by "targeting priority outcomes, integrating industry and community initiatives and incorporating new policy and regulatory frameworks (Reef Plan 5)". This updated version has improved the clarity of the previous plan and targets set by that plan, have improved accountability and further improved monitoring and assessment. The 2009 report found that 41 out of the 65 actions met their original goals, however, 18 were not progressing well according to evaluation criteria as well as 6 were rated as having unsatisfactory levels of progress.
Some key achievements made since the plan's initial passing in 2003 were the establishment of the Reef Quality Partnership to set targets, report findings and monitor progress towards targets, improved land condition by landowners was rewarded with extended leases, Water Quality Improvement Plans were created to identify regional targets and identified management changes that needed to be made to reach those targets, Nutrient Management Zones have been created to combat sediment loss in particular areas, education programs have been started to help gather support for sustainable agriculture, changes to land management practices have taken place through the implementation of the Farm Management Systems and codes of practice, the creation of the Queensland Wetland program and other achievements were made to help improve the water quality flowing into the coral reefs.
A taskforce of scientists was also created to assess the impact of different parts of the plan on the quality of water flowing into the coral reefs. They found that many of the goals have yet to be reached but found more evidence that states that improving the water quality of the Great Barrier Reef will improve its resilience to climate change. The Reefocus summit in 2008, which is also detailed in the report, came to similar conclusions. After this, a stakeholder working group was formed that worked between several groups as well as the Australian and Queensland governments to update reef goals and objectives. The updated version of the plan focuses on strategic priority areas and actions to achieve 2013 goals. Also quantitative targets have been made to critically assess whether targets are being met.
Some examples of the water quality goals outlined by this plan are that by 2013, there will be a 50% reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus loads at the end of catchments and that by 2020, there will be a reduction in sediment load by 20%. The plan also outlines a number of steps that must be taken by landholders to help improve grazing, soil, nutrient, and chemical management practices. There are also a number of supporting initiatives to take place outlined in the plan to help create a framework to improve land use practices which will in turn improve water quality.
Through these means the governments of Australia and Queensland hope to improve water quality by 2013. The 2013 outlook report and revised water quality plan will assess what needs to be done in the future to improve water quality and the livelihoods of the wildlife that resides there.[119]
In July 2004, a new zoning plan took effect for the entire Marine Park, and has been widely acclaimed as a new global benchmark for
In 2006, a review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975 recommended that there should be no further zoning plan changes until 2013, and that every five years, a peer-reviewed outlook report should be published, examining the reef's health, management, and environmental pressures.[5][124] In each outlook report, several assessments are required. Each assessment has a set of assessment criteria that allows for better presentation of available evidence. Each assessment is judged by these criteria and given a grade. Every outlook report follows the same judging and grading process so that information can be tracked over time. No new research is done to produce the report. Only readily available information goes into the report so little of what is known about the Reef is actually featured in each outlook report.[125]
Abbot Point coal port dredge dumping controversy
In December 2013,
On 31 January 2014, the GBRMPA issued a dumping permit that will allow three million cubic metres of sea bed from Abbot Point, north of Bowen, to be transported and unloaded in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Potential significant harms have been identified in relation to dredge spoil and the process of churning up the sea floor in the area and exposing it to air: firstly, new research shows the finer particles of dredge spoil can cloud the water and block sunlight, thereby starving sea grass and coral up to distances of 80 km away from the point of origin due to the actions of wind and currents. Furthermore, dredge spoil can literally smother reef or sea grass to death, while storms can repeatedly resuspend these particles so that the harm caused is ongoing; secondly, disturbed sea floor can release toxic substances into the surrounding environment.[127]
The dredge spoil from the Abbot Point port project is to be dumped 24 kilometres (15 mi) away, near Bowen in north Queensland, and the approval from the Authority will result in the production of an extra 70 million tonnes of coal annually, worth between A$1.4 billion and $2.8 billion.[127] Authority chairman, Dr Russell Reichelt, stated after the confirmation of the approval:
This approval is in line with the agency's view that port development along the Great Barrier Reef coastline should be limited to existing ports. As a deepwater port that has been in operation for nearly 30 years, Abbot Point is better placed than other ports along the Great Barrier Reef coastline to undertake expansion as the capital and maintenance dredging required will be significantly less than what would be required in other areas. It's important to note the seafloor of the approved disposal area consists of sand, silt and clay and does not contain coral reefs or seagrass beds.[127]
The approval was provided with a corresponding set of 47 new environmental conditions that include the following:
- A long-term water quality monitoring plan extending five years after the disposal activity is completed.
- A heritage management plan to protect the Catalina second world war aircraft wreck in Abbot Bay.
- The establishment of an independent dredging and disposal technical advice panel and a management response group, to include community representatives.[127][128]
The Australian Federal Government announced on 13 November that there would now be a ban on the dumping of dredge spoil in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. The World Heritage Committee asked Environment Minister Greg Hunt to investigate alternative options to dump on land instead. The Queensland government and the Commonwealth have now accepted the alternative option and advice from The World Heritage Committee and will now commence dumping on land. [129]
Tourism
Due to its vast
In 1996, most of the tourism in the region was domestically generated and the most popular visiting times were during the Australian winter. At this time, it was estimated that tourists to the Great Barrier Reef contributed A$776 million per annum.[131] As the largest commercial activity in the region, it was estimated in 2003 that tourism generated over A$4 billion annually,[132] and the 2005 estimate increased to A$5.1 billion.[130] A Deloitte report published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in March 2013 states that the Reef's 2,000 kilometres of coastline attracts tourism worth A$6.4 billion annually and employs more than 64,000 people.[133]
Approximately two million people visit the Great Barrier Reef each year.[134] Although most of these visits are managed in partnership with the marine Tourism industry, there is a concern among the general public that tourism is harmful to the Great Barrier Reef.[59]
A variety of boat tours and cruises are offered, from single day trips, to longer voyages. Boat sizes range from
Management of tourism in the Great Barrier Reef is geared towards making tourism
The problems that surround ecotourism in the Great Barrier Reef revolve around permanent tourism platforms. Platforms are large, ship-like vessels that act as a base for tourists while scuba diving and snorkelling in the Great Barrier Reef. Seabirds will land on the platforms and defecate which will eventually be washed into the sea. The feces carry nitrogen, phosphorus and often DDT and mercury, which cause aspergillosis, yellow-band disease, and black band disease. Areas without tourism platforms have 14 out of 9,468 (1.1%) diseased corals versus areas with tourism platforms that have 172 out of 7,043 (12%) diseased corals.[139] Tourism is a major economic activity for the region. Thus, while non-permanent platforms could be possible in some areas, overall, permanent platforms are likely a necessity. Solutions have been suggested to siphon bird waste into gutters connecting to tanks helping lower runoff that causes coral disease.[140]
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has also placed many permanent anchorage points around the general use areas. These act to reduce damage to the reef due to anchoring destroying soft coral, chipping hard coral, and disturbing sediment as it is dragged across the bottom. Tourism operators also must comply with speed limits when travelling to or from tourist destinations, to prevent excessive wake from the boats disturbing the reef ecosystem.[citation needed]
Fishing
The fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef, controlled by the Queensland Government, is worth A$1 billion annually.[15] It employs approximately 2000 people, and fishing in the Great Barrier Reef is pursued commercially, for recreation, and as a traditional means for feeding one's family.[110]
Dugong hunting
Under the
Four
See also
- Catlin Seaview Survey
- Coral Triangle
- Galápagos Islands
- Islands on the Great Barrier Reef
- Komodo National Park
- List of reefs
- Ocean acidification in the Great Barrier Reef
- Sixth extinction
- Valdes Peninsula
- Great Southern Reef
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Further reading
- Bell, Peter (1998). AIMS: The First Twenty-five Years. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science. ISBN 978-0-642-32212-8.
- Bowen, James; Bowen, Margarita (2002). The Great Barrier Reef : history, science, heritage. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82430-3.
- Done, T.J. (1982). "Patterns in the distribution of coral communities across the central Great Barrier Reef". Coral Reefs. 1 (2): 95–107. S2CID 38013851.
- "Research Publications". Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Archived from the originalon 18 July 2011.
- Hutchings, Pat; Kingsford, Mike; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove (2008). ISBN 978-0-643-09557-1.
- Lucas, P.H.C.; et al. (1997). The outstanding universal value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. ISBN 0-642-23028-5.
- Mather, P.; Bennett, I., eds. (1993). A Coral Reef Handbook: A Guide to the Geology, Flora and Fauna of the Great Barrier Reef (3rd ed.). Chipping North: Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd. ]
External links
- "How the Great Barrier Reef Works". howstuffworks.com.
- World heritage listing for Great Barrier Reef
- Great Barrier Reef UNESCO Collection on Google Arts and Culture
- Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
- CRC Reef Research Centre
- "Dive into the Great Barrier Reef". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 5 March 2001.
- Battle for the Reef – Four Corners – ABC.au
- Great Barrier Reef scientists confirm largest die-off of corals recorded. The Guardian. 28 November 2016.
- Great Barrier Reef Foundation web archive, State Library of Queensland
- Great Barrier Reef Expedition Photographs 1928-1929, State Library of Queensland
- Memories and Mutton Birds Women of the Great Barrier Reef, John Oxley Libraryblog
- 2020 John Oxley Library Fellows- Research Reveals: Women of the Great Barrier Reef; State Library of Queensland
- 2020 John Oxley Library Fellows: Deb Anderson and Kerrie Foxwell-Norton. The Terry Ridgway Story, State Library of Queensland