Great Eastern Crisis
Great Eastern Crisis (1875–1878) | |||||||||
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Part of the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire and of the Great Game | |||||||||
Serbian soldiers attacking the Ottoman army at Mramor, 1877 | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
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Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
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Strength | |||||||||
| 281,000[2] | ||||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||||
30,000 killed,[6] 90,000 died from wounds and diseases[6] |
Events leading to World War I |
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The Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–1878 began in the Ottoman Empire's territories on the Balkan peninsula in 1875, with the outbreak of several uprisings and wars that resulted in the intervention of international powers, and was ended with the Treaty of Berlin in July 1878.
It is also called
Background
The state of Ottoman administration in the Balkans continued to deteriorate throughout the 19th century, with the Sublime Porte occasionally losing control over whole provinces. Reforms imposed by European powers did little to improve the conditions of the Christian population, while at the same time managing to dissatisfy a sizable portion of the Muslim population. Bosnia suffered at least two waves of rebellion by the local Muslim population, the most recent in 1850.[7] Austria consolidated after the turmoil of the first half of the century and sought to reinvigorate its longstanding policy of expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the nominally autonomous, de facto independent principalities of Serbia and Montenegro also sought to expand into regions inhabited by their compatriots. Nationalist and irredentist sentiments were strong and were encouraged by Russia and its agents.
Ottoman economic crisis and default
On 24 August 1854,
Uprisings and wars in the Balkans
The decision to increase taxes for paying the Ottoman Empire's
Aftermath
After the
In 1881,
Historian Maroš Melichárek writes that the Great Eastern Crisis could not have been fully resolved without Serbia.[19]
Chronology of the Great Eastern Crisis and its aftermath
Precursors
Crisis
- Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877)
- Stara Zagora Uprising (1875)
- April Uprising(1876)
- Razlovtsi insurrection(1876)
- On June 30, 1876, Montenegro and Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire.
- Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878)
- Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)
- First Constitutional Era (1876–1878)
- Constantinople Conference (1876–1877)
- Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
- Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878
- Congress of Berlin (1878)
- Kumanovo uprising (1878)
- 1878 Greek Macedonian rebellion
- Epirus Revolt of 1878
- Cretan revolt (1878)
- Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878
- Kresna–Razlog uprising (1878)
Treaties
- Reichstadt Agreement (1876)
- Budapest Convention of 1877
- Treaty of San Stefano (1878)
- Cyprus Convention (1878)
- Treaty of Berlin (1878)
Aftermath
- Armenian Question
- League of Prizren (1878–1881)
- Battles for Plav and Gusinje (1879–1880)
- Pact of Halepa (1878)
- Dual Alliance (1879)
- ʻUrabi revolt(1879–1882)
- Brsjak revolt (1880–1881)
- French conquest of Tunisia (1881)
- Austro–Serbian Alliance of 1881
- Convention of Constantinople (1881)
- Herzegovina Uprising (1882)
- British Occupation of Egypt(1882)
- Austro-Hungarian–German–Romanian alliance (1883)
- Timok Rebellion (1883)
- Bulgarian Crisis (1885–1888)
- Yildiz Trials (1881)
- 1879–1881 Anatolian famine
References
- ^ Timothy C. Dowling. Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. ABC-CLIO, 2014. p. 748
- ^ Mernikov, A. G.; Spektor, A. A. (2005). Всемирная история войн [World History of Wars] (in Russian). Minsk, Belarus: Харвест.
- ^ Urlanis, Boris (1960). Войны в период домонополистического капитализма [Wars during the period of pre-monopoly capitalism]. Войны и народонаселение Европы. Людские потери вооруженных сил европейских стран в войнах XVII—XX вв. (Историко-статистическое исследование) [Wars and population of Europe: Human losses of the armed forces of European countries in the wars of the 17th—20th centuries (Historical and statistical research)] (in Russian). Minsk: Sotsekgiz. pp. 104–105, 129 § 4.
- ^ Scafes, Cornel, et al., Armata Romania in Razvoiul de Independenta 1877–1878 [The Romanian Army in the War of Independence 1877–1878]. Bucuresti, Editura Sigma, 2002, p. 149 (Romence)
- ^ a b Boris Urlanis, Войны и народонаселение Европы [Wars and population of Europe], Part II, Chapter II
- ^ ISBN 985-13-2607-0.
- ISBN 978-1506300818. Retrieved 25 December 2019.
- ^ "Dünya Bülteni: "Osmanlı Devleti ilk kez dış borç aldı"". Archived from the original on 2018-04-11. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
- ^ a b Derin Strateji: "Osmanlı Borçları ve Düyun-u Umumiye İdaresi"
- ^ "Yazarport: "Kırım Savaşı ve İlk Dış Borçlanma (1854-1855)"". Archived from the original on 2018-06-15. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
- ^ "History of the Ottoman public debt". Archived from the original on 2012-07-24. Retrieved 2014-08-28.
- ^ Douglas Arthur Howard: "The History of Turkey", page 71.
- ^ a b c Mevzuat Dergisi, Yıl: 9, Sayı: 100, Nisan 2006: "Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nde Borçlanma Politikaları ve Sonuçları"
- ^ a b c d e Niall Ferguson (2 January 2008). "An Ottoman warning for indebted America". Financial Times. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
- ^ Gold for the Sultan: Western Bankers and Ottoman Finance, 1856–1881, by Christopher Clay, London, 2001, p. 30.
- ^ Krasner, Stephen D. "Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy". Retrieved 26 August 2014.
- ^ Articles 17, 18 and 19 of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)
- ^ Articles 20 and 21 of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)
- ^ Melichárek, Maroš (January 2019). "Srbské nádeje a sklamania: Jovan Ristić a Berlínsky kongres /Serbia's Hopes and Disillusions: Jovan Ristić and the Congress of Berlin/". Od moravských luk k balkánským horám: Václavu Štěpánkovi k šedesátinám.
Further reading
- "Unprinted documents: Russo-British relations during the Eastern Crisis (VIII. The eve of the armistice)". The Slavonic and East European Review. 25 (64). November 1946.
- "Unprinted documents: Russo-British relations during the Eastern Crisis (VIII. On the edge of war)". The Slavonic and East European Review. 25 (65). April 1947.
- Anderson, M.S. The Eastern Question, 1774–1923: A Study in International Relations (1966) online Archived 2020-06-19 at the Wayback Machine
- Branković, Slobodan (1998). Great eastern crisis and Serbia, 1875-1878. Svetska srpska zajednica, Institut srpskog naroda.
- Goldfrank, David M. (2003). "Berlin, Congress of". In Millar, James R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Russian History. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0028656939.
- Király, Béla K.; Rothenberg, Gunther Erich (1985). War and Society in East Central Europe: Insurrections wars and the eastern crisis in the 1870s. Brooklyn College Press. ISBN 978-0-88033-090-9.
- Langer, William L. European Alliances and Alignments: 1871-1890 (1950) pp 151–70. Online
- ISBN 978-0-19-822379-5.
- Medlicott, W. N. (1963). The Congress of Berlin and After: A Diplomatic History of the Near East Settlement, 1878–1880 (Second ed.). London: Frank Cass., Focus on the aftermath.
- Munro, Henry F. The Berlin congress (1918) online free, 41pp of text, 600 pp of documents
- Taylor, A. J. P. (1954). The struggle for mastery in Europe: 1848–1918. Oxford University Press.[permanent dead link]
- Yavuz, M. Hakan; Sluglett, Peter, eds. (2012). War and Diplomacy: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Treaty of Berlin. University of Utah Press. ISBN 978-1-60781-150-3.