Bellum Batonianum
Bellum Batonianum (Illyrian revolt) | |
---|---|
Roman province of Illyricum | |
Result |
Roman victory
|
Territorial changes | Status quo ante bellum |
- Iapydes
- Caesar Augustus
- Tiberius
- Valerius Messallinus
- Aulus Caecina Severus
- Germanicus
- Marcus Plautius Silvanus
- Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
- Rhoemetalces I
200,000 infantry
9,000 cavalry
The Bellum Batonianum (
The Romans referred to the conflict as Bellum Batonianum ("Batonian War") after these two leaders with the same name; Velleius Paterculus called it the Pannonian and Dalmatian War because it involved both regions of Illyricum, and in English it has also been called the Great Illyrian Revolt, Pannonian–Dalmatian uprising, and Bato uprising.
The four-year war lasted from AD 6 to AD 9 and witnessed a large deployment of Roman forces in the province, with whole armies operating across the western Balkans and fighting on more than one front.[5] In AD 8, the Breuci of the Sava valley surrendered, but it took a winter blockade and another season of fighting before the surrender in Dalmatia in AD 9. The Roman historian Suetonius described the uprising as the most difficult conflict faced by Rome since the Punic Wars two centuries earlier.[6]
Background
Illyricum had seen some fighting during the
In 35 BC, the
In 27 BC, the first settlement between Octavian and the Roman Senate formalised Octavian's absolute rule, bestowing the title of Augustus on him and making him the first Roman emperor. It also made arrangements about the provinces of the empire. Most provinces remained senatorial provinces, whose governors were chosen by the Senate from among the senators, while the frontier provinces became imperial provinces, whose governors were appointed by Augustus. The province of Illyricum was constituted out of both Dalmatia and the newly conquered southern Pannonia, and, despite being a frontier province, was designated as a senatorial province. [11]
From 14 BC to 10 BC there were a series of rebellions in southern Pannonia and northern Dalmatia which Roman writers referred to as Bellum Pannonicum (the "Pannonian War"). What little is known about these events comes chiefly from brief accounts by
The war
Indigenous alliance and Roman forces
The Great Illyrian Revolt of AD 6–9 was the only occasion on which the different peoples in the province of Illyricum united against the Romans. The main tribes which contributed to the alliance were the
Suetonius' claim about fifteen legions is known to be incorrect. At one point there were ten legions assembled in Illyricum, but five of them were sent back because this would have created an oversized army. On three occasions the three legions from the Roman province of
AD 6: Outbreak of the rebellion and first year of the war
In AD 6, Tiberius was about to launch the second campaign against the Marcomanni in Germania. Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus, the governor of Illyricum, had planned to join him with most of his army, and ordered the local tribes to provide auxiliary contingents. However, when these troops gathered, they rebelled under the leadership of a Daesitiate tribal chieftain named Bato and defeated a Roman force sent against them. Although this war is sometimes described as having been fought by the Daesitiatae and the Breuci only, Cassius Dio identified the forces led by Bato the Daesitiate as Dalmatian, indicating a broader composition. According to Velleius Paterculus, the population of the tribes which rebelled was more than 800,000, and they fielded 200,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry. Modern scholars cannot be certain of how trustworthy this information is, as ancient historians tended to exaggerate figures. Velleius Paterculus also wrote that the rebels knew Roman military tactics and spoke Latin.
The rebels divided their forces into three parts. One was to invade Italy, which was not far from
In Cassius Dio's version, at first, Bato the Daesitiate had very few followers. However, once he defeated the Roman force sent against him, more rebels joined him. Then the Breuci, the largest tribe in southern Pannonia, led by a commander also named
According to Cassius Dio, Bato the Daesitiate went east to the other Bato and made an alliance with him. This contrasts with the picture given by Velleius Paterculus, in which the rebellion seemed to have a plan and the Dalmatians and the Breuci seemed to have acted in concert from the beginning. In Dio's account the two Batos occupied Mount Alma (Mount
AD 7: Germanicus sent to Illyricum; troops from Moesia and Asia sent back
Cassius Dio wrote that in AD 7, Augustus sent Tiberius' nephew
Germanicus was given a force of freemen and freedmen. Some of the latter were requisitioned from their masters, who were compensated. In Rome there was a shortage of grain. Velleius Paterculus wrote that the rebel forces in Pannonia who faced Tiberius were not happy with the size of their forces. They were worn down and brought to the verge of famine (presumably due to ravaging), could not withstand his offensives, and avoided pitched battles. They went to the Claudian Mountains (a mountain range in Pannonia, in
After the aforementioned battle, Aulus Caecina Severus and Marcus Plautius Silvanus joined Tiberius and a huge army was assembled. Velleius Paterculus reported that they brought five legions (three from Moesia and two from the province of Asia, respectively). Tiberius had five legions (three in Pannonia and two in Dalmatia). The legions were not at full strength as Velleius Paterculus mentioned that there were seventy cohorts (ten legions at full complement would have had 100 cohorts). There were fourteen troops of cavalry, as well as 10,000 reservists, many volunteers, and the Thracian cavalry. There had not been such a large army gathered in a single location since the time of the Roman civil wars. Tiberius decided to escort the newly arrived armies back because the army was too large to be manageable. He then returned to Siscia at the beginning of a very hard winter.[32][33]
AD 8: End of the rebellion in Pannonia
In AD 8, the Dalmatians and the Pannonians, ravaged by famine and disease, wanted to sue for peace but were prevented from doing so by the rebels, who had no hope of being spared by the Romans and so continued to resist. Tiberius had pursued a policy of scorched earth to starve the Pannonians. Cassius Dio also noted that there were grain shortages in Rome the previous year and that later in this year the famine abated. It is not known how widespread this famine was and whether it touched other Mediterranean areas, including Dalmatia and Pannonia, and thus had been a contributory factor. According to Dio, Bato the Breucian overthrew Pinnes, the king of the Breuci. He became suspicious of his subject tribes and demanded hostages from the Pannonian garrisons. Bato the Daesitiate defeated him in battle and pinned him in a stronghold. He was handed over to Bato the Daesitiate and was executed. After this many Pannonians broke with the rebels. Marcus Plautius Silvanus conducted a campaign against the tribes, conquered the Breuci, and won over the others without a battle. Bato the Daesitiate subsequently withdrew from Pannonia, occupied the passes leading to Dalmatia, and ravaged the lands beyond. In Pannonia there was some brigandage.[34] Velleius Paterculus wrote that the harsh winter brought rewards because in the following summer all of Pannonia sought peace. Therefore, a bad winter probably also played a part. The Pannonians laid down their arms at the River Bathinus. Bato was captured and Pinnes surrendered.[35]
End of the rebellion
In AD 9, the war was restricted to Dalmatia. Velleius Paterculus wrote that Augustus gave the chief command of all Roman forces to
Cassius Dio, instead, wrote that Tiberius returned to Rome. Germanicus was unable to take the well-fortified Splonum by storm. However, when a parapet of the wall fell, the inhabitants panicked, abandoning that part of the wall and fleeing to the citadel, where they eventually surrendered. At Raetinum the inhabitants set a slow-burning fire. When the Romans entered the town they did not notice it and then found themselves surrounded by the flames and pelted from the wall of the citadel, most of them dying in the trap. The people in the citadel had to escape to subterranean chambers in the night. Germanicus then seized Seretium and then the other places fell easily. However, other Dalmatians revolted.
Cassius Dio also wrote that there was famine in Italy largely due to the war. However, it has to be noted that most of the grain was imported from
Germanicus turned his attention to the last holdouts in Arduba, a strongly fortified town with a river around its base. Within the town, there was tension between rebel deserters who wanted to carry on the fight and the inhabitants who wanted peace, which eventually developed into violence. The women reportedly helped the deserters because, contrary to their men, they did not want to suffer servitude. The deserters were defeated and surrendered. The women took their children and threw themselves into the flames or the river below. Cassius Dio did not specify what caused the fire. The nearby towns surrendered voluntarily. Germanicus rejoined Tiberius, and sent Gaius Vibius Postumus to subdue the other districts. Bato promised to surrender if he and his followers would be pardoned. Tiberius agreed and then asked him why his people had rebelled. According to Cassius Dio, he replied: "You Romans are to blame for this; for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves."[39]
Aftermath
The Romans, aside from committing atrocities
See also
- Illyrian warfare
- Bato
- Auxiliaries (Roman military)#Illyrian revolt (6–9 AD)
References
- ^ Velleius, Hist. Rom. II, 110. Schmidt, 5.
- ^ "The Great Illyrian Revolt". My Albanian studies. Retrieved 2023-12-12.
- ^ a b Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Tiberius, 16
- ISBN 9789382573470. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
- ^ Wilkes, J. J., (1992), p. 183
- ^ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Tiberius, 16, 17
- ^ Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars 12–16
- ^ Julius Caesar, The Alexandrian War, 42–47
- ^ Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars 16–28
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 49.38.3
- ^ "Illyricum | Free Online Biblical Library". www.biblicaltraining.org. Retrieved 2018-08-26.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 54.20.1‑3
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 54.24.3, 28.1–2, 31.2–3, 36.2 3, 55.2.4
- ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.96.2‑3
- ^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History, 2.24
- ^ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Tiberius, 9.2
- ^ Dzino, D., Bellum Pannonicum: The Roman armies and indigenous communities in southern Pannonia 16‑9 BC, p. 471
- ^ M. Zaninović, Liburnia Militaris, Opusc. Archeol. 13, 43–67 (1988), UDK 904.930.2(497.13)>>65<<, page 59
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.29
- ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.110, 112.1–2
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.29
- ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.110
- ^ Radman-Livaja, I., Dizda, M., Archaeological Traces of the Pannonian Revolt 6–9 AD: Evidence and Conjectures, Veröffentlichungen der Altertumskommiion für Westfalen Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, Band XVIII, p. 49
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 29–30
- ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.112.1–2
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.30
- ^ Radman-Livaja, I., Dizda, M., Archaeological Traces of the Pannonian Revolt 6–9 AD: Evidence and Conjectures, Veröffentlichungen der Altertumskommiion für Westfalen Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, Band XVIII, p. 49
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.29.6, 31.2, 32.3
- ^ Velleius Paterculus Compendium of Roman History 2.112.3–6
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.29
- ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.110, 112.1–2
- ^ Velleius Paterculus Compendium of Roman History 2.113
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.29.6, 31.2, 32.3
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.34.4–7
- ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.114.4
- ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.114.5, 115-1-4
- ^ This could have been contributed to by Dalmatian or Liburnian piracy in the Adriatic Sea. However, there are no reports of such piracy in this period in the ancient literature. Alternatively, grain might have been diverted to feed the troops in Illyricum, but there are no such reports.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 56.11–15
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 56.11–16
- ^ Wilkes (1992), page 208.
- ISBN 0-521-26430-8, p. 579.
- ^ Wilkes (1992), p. 207: "... The war was a savage affair and the main resistance to the Romans came from the Breuci and Amantini in the Sava valley. The young males were rounded up and sold as slaves in Italy, a quite exceptional action ..."
- ^ Wilkes (1992), p. 217.
Bibliography
- Primary sources
- Cassius Dio Roman History, Vol 6, Books. 51–65 (Loeb Classical Library), Loeb, 1989; ISBN 978-0674990920 [1]
- Suetonius, (the Life of Tiberius; The Life of The Twelve Caesars, Penguin Classics, revised edition, 2007;ISBN 978-0140455168 (Julius Caesar [10]) accessed July 2016 [2]
- Velleius Paterculus Compendium of Roman History / Res Gestae Divi Augusti (Loeb Classical Library, No. 152), 1867; Harvard University Press (1867); ASIN: B01JXR6R1Q [3]
- Secondary sources
- Gruen, E., S., The Expansion of the Empire under Augustus, in: A. K. Bowman, A., K., Champlin, E., Lintot, A., (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History 10. The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C. – A.D. 69, Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 147–197; ISBN 978-0521264303
- Mócsy, A., Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire (Routledge Revivals), Routledge, 2015; ISBN 978-0415745833
- Seager, R., Tiberius, Tiberius, (Blackwell Ancient Lives), Wiley-Blackwell; 2ND edition, 2005; ISBN 978-1405115292
- Radman-Livaja, I., Dizda, M., Archaeological Traces of the Pannonian Revolt 6–9 AD:Evidence and Conjectures, Veröffentlichungen der Altertumskommiion für Westfalen Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, Band XVIII, Aschendorff Verlag, 210, pp. 47–58 [4]
- Wilkes, J. J., The Danubian and Balkan Provinces, in: Bowman A., L., Champlin E., A.Lintot (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History 10. The Augustan Empire, 43 B. C. – A. D. 69, Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 545–585; ISBN 978-0521264303
- Wilkes J.J., The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe), Wiley-Blackwell; New Ed edition, 1996; ISBN 978-0631198079
Detailed and critical commentaries of the sources is given in:
- Šašel-Kos, M., A Historical Outline of the Region Between Aquileia, the Adriatic and Sirmium in Cassius Dio and Herodian (Ljubljana 1986), pp. 178–190.
- Swan, P., M, The Augustan Succession: a Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History Books 55–56 (9 B.C. – A.D. 14). American Classical Studies 47, pp. 195–222, pp. 235–250. Oxford University Press, 2004; ISBN 978-0195167740
- A. J. Woodman, A.J., Velleius Paterculus: The Tiberian Narrative (2.94–131) (Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries), Cambridge University Press, 2004
Useful historical narratives of the events can be found in:
- Dzino, D. Illyricum in Roman Politics 229 BC – AD 68, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 149–153; ISBN 978-0521194198 [5]
- Wilkes, J. J., Dalmatia, Harvard University Press, 1969; pp. 69–77. ISBN 978-0674189508
External links
- Media related to Great Illyrian Revolt at Wikimedia Commons