Greece

Hellenic Republic
Ελληνική Δημοκρατία (Greek)
*Ellinikí Dimokratía*
Hellenic Republic Ελληνική Δημοκρατία (Greek); Ellinikí Dimokratía
	Flag Coat of arms
	Motto: Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος; Elefthería í Thánatos; (English: "Freedom or Death")
	Anthem: Ύμνος εις την Ελευθερίαν; Ímnos is tin Eleftherían; (English: "Hymn to Liberty");
	Location of Greece (dark green) – in Europe (light green & dark grey); – in the European Union (light green)
Capital and largest city	Athens; 37°58′N 23°43′E / 37.967°N 23.717°E
Official language; and national language	Greek
Religion (2017)	93% Christianity 90% Greek Orthodoxy (official)a; 3% other Christian; ; ; 4% no religion; 2% Islam; 1% other;
Demonym(s)	Greek; Hellene;
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic
• President	Katerina Sakellaropoulou
• Prime Minister	Kyriakos Mitsotakis
• Parliament Speaker	Konstantinos Tasoulas
Legislature	Hellenic Parliament
Establishment history
• Independence declared from the Ottoman Empire	25 March 1821 (traditional starting date of the Greek War of Independence), 15 January 1822 (official declaration)
• Recognised	3 February 1830
• Third Hellenic Republic	24 July 1974
• Current constitution	11 June 1975
Area
• Total	131,957 km2 (50,949 sq mi) (95th)
• Water (%)	1.51 (2015)
Population
• 2023 estimate	10,413,982 (1 January 2023) (90th)
• 2021 census	10,432,481
• Density	78.9/km2 (204.4/sq mi) (105th)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	$430.125 billion (55th)
• Per capita	$41,188 (52nd)
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	$250.276 billion (54th)
• Per capita	$23,966 (45th)
Gini (2023)	31.8; medium
HDI (2022)	0.893; very high (33rd)
Currency	Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone	UTC+02:00 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+03:00 (EEST)
Date format	dd.mm.yyyy (AD)b
Driving side	right
Calling code	+30
ISO 3166 code	GR
Internet TLD	.grc; .ελ;
	The Church of Greece is recognized by the Greek Constitution as the prevailing religion in Greece, and is the only country in the world where Eastern Orthodoxy is clearly recognized as a state religion.; Other short formats: dd-mm-yyyy, dd/mm/yyyy; The .eu domain is also used, as in other European Union member states.;

Greece,

Balkan peninsula, Greece shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Sea of Crete and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin, featuring thousands of islands. The country comprises nine traditional geographic regions, and has a population of nearly 10.4 million.^[4] Athens is the nation's capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki and Patras

.

Greece is considered the cradle of

Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox world. After the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Latin possessions were established in parts of the Greek peninsula, but most of the area fell under Ottoman

rule by the mid-15th century.

Following a protracted

civil war and military dictatorship. Democracy was restored in 1974-5, leading to the current parliamentary republic

.

Greece is a

most-visited country in the world in 2022 .^[11]

Name

The native name of the country in Modern Greek is Ελλάδα (Elláda^ⓘ, pronounced [eˈlaða]). The corresponding form in Ancient Greek and conservative formal Modern Greek (Katharevousa) is Ἑλλάς (Hellas, classical: [hel.lás], modern: [eˈlas]). This is the source of the English alternative name Hellas, which is mostly found in archaic or poetic contexts today. The Greek adjectival form ελληνικός (ellinikos, [eliniˈkos]) is sometimes also translated as Hellenic and is often rendered in this way in the formal names of Greek institutions, as in the official name of the Greek state, the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, [eliniˈci ðimokraˈti.a]).^[12]

The English names Greece and Greek are derived, via the Latin Graecia and Graecus, from the name of the Graeci (Γραικοί, Graikoí; singular Γραικός, Graikós), who were among the first ancient Greek tribes to settle Magna Graecia in southern Italy. The term is possibly derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ǵerh₂-, "to grow old",^[13]^[14] more specifically from Graea (ancient city), said by Aristotle to be the oldest in Greece, and the source of colonists for the Naples area.^[15]

History

Prehistory and Aegean civilizations

The

early modern humans outside of Africa, dated to 200,000 years ago.^[16] However others suggest the remains represent archaic humans.^[17] All three stages of the Stone Age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave.^[18] Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC,^[19] are the oldest in Europe, as Greece lies on the route by which farming spread from the Near East to Europe.^[20]

Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and considered the birthplace of Western civilisation,[21]^[22] beginning with the Cycladic culture on the islands of the Aegean Sea around 3200 BC,^[23] the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700–1500 BC),^[24]^[25] and then the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland (1600–1100 BC).^[25] These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans using an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans writing the earliest attested form of Greek in Linear B.^[26] Contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a "Great King" based in mainland Greece.^[27]^[28]

Ancient Greece

The collapse of the Mycenean civilization ushered in the

science, mathematics and philosophy. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens.^[33]^[34]

By 500 BC, the Persian Empire controlled the Greek city states in Asia Minor and Macedonia.^[35] Attempts by Greek city-states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed, and Persia invaded the states of mainland Greece in 492 BC, but was forced to withdraw after defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. In response, the Greek city-states formed the Hellenic League in 481 BC, led by Sparta, which was the first recorded union of Greek states since the mythical union of the Trojan War.^[36]^[37] The second Persian invasion of Greece was decisively defeated in 480-79 BC, at Salamis and Plataea, marking the eventual withdrawal of the Persians from all their European territories. The Greek victories in the Greco-Persian Wars are a pivotal moment in history,^[38] as the 50 years of peace afterwards are known as the Golden Age of Athens, a seminal period that laid many foundations of Western civilization.

Lack of political unity resulted in frequent conflict between Greek states. The most devastating intra-Greek war was the

kingdom of Macedon under king Philip II.^[40]

Hellenistic Age

After Philip's assassination in 336 BC, his son and

Greek, known as koine, and Greek culture was spread, while the Greeks adopted Eastern deities and cults.^[43] Greek science, technology, and mathematics reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.^[44] Aspiring to maintain their autonomy and independence from the Antigonid kings of the Macedonians, many poleis of Greece united in koina or sympoliteiai i.e. federations, while after the establishment of economic relations with the East, a stratum of wealthy euergetai dominated their internal life.^[45]

Roman province (146 BC – 4th century AD)

From about 200 BC the Roman Republic became increasingly involved in Greek affairs and engaged in a series of wars with Macedon.^[46] Macedon's defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC signalled the end of Antigonid power.^[47] In 146 BC, Macedonia was annexed as a province by Rome, and the rest of Greece became a Roman protectorate.^[46]^[48]

The process was completed in 27 BC when emperor

Achaea.^[48] Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by Greek culture, hence Horace's famous statement: "Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive".^[49] The epics of Homer inspired the Aeneid of Virgil, and authors such as Seneca the Younger wrote using Greek styles. Roman heroes such as Scipio Africanus, studied philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed. Similarly, most Roman emperors admired things Greek in nature. Emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games, while Hadrian^[50] served as an eponymous archon of Athens, before becoming emperor.^[51]

Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenised East were instrumental in the spread of Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,^[52] and Christianity's early leaders and writers were mostly Greek-speaking, though not from Greece itself.^[53] The New Testament was written in Greek, and some sections attest to the importance of churches in Greece in early Christianity. Nevertheless, much of Greece clung to paganism, and ancient Greek religious practices were still in vogue in the late 4th century AD,^[54] when they were outlawed by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in 391–392.^[55] The last recorded Olympic games were held in 393,^[56] and many temples were destroyed or damaged in the century that followed.^[57]^[58] The closure of the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens by Emperor Justinian in 529 is considered the end of antiquity, although there is evidence that the academy continued.^[57]^[59]

Medieval period (4th–15th century)

The Roman Empire in the east, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, is known as the Byzantine Empire (but called "Kingdom of the Romans" in its own time) and lasted until 1453. With its capital in Constantinople, its language and culture were Greek and its religion was predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian.^[60]

The Empire's Balkan territories, including Greece, suffered from the dislocation of barbarian invasions;^[61] raids by Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the Slavic invasion in the 7th century resulted in a collapse in imperial authority in the Greek peninsula.^[62] The imperial government retained control of only the islands and coastal areas, particularly the populated walled cities such as Athens, Corinth and Thessalonica.^[62] ^[63]^[64] However, the view that Greece underwent decline, fragmentation and depopulation is considered outdated, as cities show institutional continuity and prosperity between the 4th and 6th centuries. In the early 6th century, Greece had approximately 80 cities according to the Synecdemus chronicle, and the 4th to the 7th century is considered one of high prosperity.^[65]

Until the 8th century almost all of modern Greece was under the jurisdiction of the

Patriarchate of Constantinople westward and northward in the 8th century.^[66] The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces during the Arab–Byzantine wars began in the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again.^[67]^[68] This process was facilitated by a large influx of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula, while many Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor.^[63] During the 11th and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the Greek peninsula benefiting from economic growth.^[67] The Greek Orthodox Church was instrumental in the spread of Greek ideas to the wider Orthodox world.^[69]^{[full citation needed}

]

Following the Fourth Crusade and fall of Constantinople to the "Latins" in 1204, mainland Greece was split between the Greek Despotate of Epirus and French rule^[70] (the Frankokratia).^[71] The re-establishment of the imperial capital in Constantinople in 1261 was accompanied by the empire's recovery of much of the Greek peninsula, while the islands remained under Genoese and Venetian control.^[70] During the Paleologi dynasty (1261–1453) a new era of Greek patriotism emerged accompanied by a turning back to ancient Greece.^[72]^[73]^[74]^[75]^[76]

In the 14th century much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire to the Serbs and then the Ottomans.^[77] Constantinople fell to the Ottomans in 1453 and by 1460, Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece was complete.^[78] Byzantine Greek scholars, who up until then were largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge, fled to the West, taking with them literature and significantly contributing to the Renaissance.^[79]

Venetian possessions and Ottoman rule (15th century – 1821)

While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century, Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1670 respectively.^[81] While some Greeks in the Ionian Islands and Constantinople lived in prosperity, and Greeks of Constantinople (Phanariots) achieved power within the Ottoman administration,^[82] much of Greece suffered the economic consequences of Ottoman conquest. Heavy taxes were enforced, and in later years the Ottoman Empire enacted a policy of creation of hereditary estates, effectively turning the rural Greek populations into serfs.^[83]

The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced discrimination intended to highlight their inferior status. Discrimination, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially. In the 19th century, many "crypto-Christians" returned to their old religious allegiance.^[84]

The nature of Ottoman administration of Greece varied, though it was invariably arbitrary and often harsh.

Orlov Revolt in 1770.^[85]^{[page needed]} These uprisings were put down by the Ottomans with great bloodshed.^[86]^[87]

Many Greeks were conscripted as Ottoman citizens to serve in the Ottoman army and especially the navy, while the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, responsible for the Orthodox, remained in general loyal to the Empire.

The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as a "dark age" in Greek history, with the prospect of overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote, with only the Ionian islands remaining free. However, in the 18th century, due to mastery of shipping and commerce, a wealthy and dispersed Greek merchant class arose. These merchants came to dominate trade within the Ottoman Empire, establishing communities throughout the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Western Europe. Though the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece off from significant European intellectual movements such as the Reformation and the Enlightenment, these ideas together with the ideals of the French Revolution and romantic nationalism began to penetrate the Greek world via the mercantile diaspora.^[88] In the late 18th century, Rigas Feraios, the first revolutionary to envision an independent Greek state, published documents on Greek independence, in Vienna.^[89]^[90]

Modern nation-state

Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)

Messolonghi, depicting the third siege of Missolonghi, painted by Theodoros Vryzakis

In the 18th century, an increase in learning during the

liberal nationalist cause.^[92]

The first revolt began on 6 March 1821 in the

great powers, France, Russian Empire, and the UK, each sent a navy.^[99] The allied fleet destroyed the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet at the Battle of Navarino, and the Greeks captured Central Greece by 1828. The nascent Greek state was recognised under the London Protocol in 1830.^[100]

Kingdom of Greece

In 1827,

monarch.^[101] Otto's reign was despotic, and in its first 11 years of independence Greece was ruled by a Bavarian oligarchy led by Josef Ludwig von Armansperg and, later, by Otto himself, as King and Premier.^[101] Greece remained under the influence of its three protecting great powers.^[102] In 1843 an uprising forced Otto to grant a constitution and representative assembly

.

Despite the

legal code.^[104] Historical revisionism took the form of de-Byzantinification and de-Ottomanisation, in favour of promoting Ancient Greek heritage.^[105] The capital was moved from Nafplio, where it had been since 1829, to Athens, then a smaller town.^[106] The Church of Greece was established as Greece's national church and 25 March, the day of Annunciation, was chosen as the anniversary of the Greek War of Independence to reinforce the link between Greek identity and Orthodoxy.^[105] Pavlos Karolidis called the Bavarian efforts to create a modern state in Greece as "not only appropriate for the peoples' needs, but also based on excellent administrative principles of the era".^[104]

Otto

parliamentary majority as a requirement for government was introduced,^[110] curbing the power of the monarchy to appoint minority governments. Corruption, coupled with increased spending to fund infrastructure like the Corinth Canal,^[111] overtaxed the weak economy and forced the declaration of public insolvency

in 1893.

Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the

Bulgarian influence, sponsored a guerrilla campaign in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia, known as the Macedonian Struggle, which ended with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.^[114]

Expansion, disaster, and reconstruction

Amidst dissatisfaction with the seeming inertia and unattainability of

elections and becoming prime minister in 1910,^[115] Venizelos initiated fiscal, social, and constitutional reforms, reorganised the military, made Greece a member of the Balkan League, and led it through the Balkan Wars. By 1913, Greece's territory and population had doubled, annexing Crete, Epirus, and Macedonia. The struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Venizelos over foreign policy on the eve of First World War dominated politics and divided the country into two opposing groups. During parts of the war, Greece had two governments: A royalist pro-German one in Athens and a Venizelist pro-Entente one in Thessaloniki

. They united in 1917, when Greece entered the war on the side of the Entente.

After the war, Greece attempted expansion into

Assyrians and a larger number of Armenians. The resultant Greek exodus from Asia Minor was made permanent, and expanded, in an official population exchange between Greece and Turkey, as part of the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the war.^[123] The following era was marked by instability, as over 1.5 million propertyless Greek refugees from Turkey had to be integrated into Greek society. Some refugees could not speak the language and were from unfamiliar environments to mainland Greeks. The refugees made a dramatic population boost, as they were more than a quarter of Greece's prior population.^[124]

Following the catastrophic events in Asia Minor, the monarchy was abolished

a rigged referendum, after which King George II

was restored to the throne.

Dictatorship, World War II, and reconstruction

An agreement between Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas and George II followed in 1936, which installed Metaxas as head of a dictatorship known as the 4th of August Regime, inaugurating authoritarian rule that would last until 1974.^[126] Although a dictatorship, Greece remained on good terms with Britain and was not allied with the Axis.

civil war

and political polarization.

In October 1940,

Greek Resistance, one of the most effective resistance movements, fought vehemently against the Nazis. The German occupiers committed atrocities, mass executions, and wholesale slaughter of civilians and destruction of towns and villages in reprisals. Hundreds of villages were systematically torched and almost 1 million Greeks left homeless.^[129] The Germans executed around 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians 40,000, and the Italians 9,000.^[130]

Following liberation, Greece annexed the

Dodecanese Islands from Italy and regained Western Thrace from Bulgaria. The country descended into a bloody civil war between communist forces and the anti-communist Greek government, which lasted until 1949, with the latter's victory. The conflict, one of the earliest struggles of the Cold War,^[131] resulted in further economic devastation, population displacement and political polarisation for the next thirty years.^[132]

Although post-war was characterised by social strife and marginalisation of the left, Greece experienced rapid economic growth and recovery, propelled in part by the U.S. Marshall Plan.^[133] In 1952, Greece joined NATO, reinforcing its membership in the Western Bloc of the Cold War.^[134]

George Papandreou's centrist government in 1965 prompted political turbulence, which culminated in a coup in 1967 by the Greek junta, led by Georgios Papadopoulos. Civil rights were suspended, political repression intensified, and human rights abuses, including torture, were rampant. Economic growth remained rapid before plateauing in 1972. The brutal suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising in 1973 set in motion the fall of the regime, resulting in a counter-coup that established brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis as the new junta strongman. On 20 July 1974, Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus in response to a Greek-backed Cypriot coup, triggering a crisis in Greece that led to the regime's collapse and restoration of democracy through Metapolitefsi.^[135]

Third Hellenic Republic

Constantine Karamanlis of the documents for the accession of Greece to the European Communities

in 1979

The former prime minister

referendum

which chose not to restore the monarchy.

Meanwhile,

Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in response to Karamanlis's conservative New Democracy party, with the two political formations dominating government over the next four decades. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.^[c]^[136] Greece became the tenth member of the European Communities in 1981, ushering in sustained growth. Investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenue from tourism, shipping, and a fast-growing service sector raised the standard of living. In 1981, the election of Andreas Papandreou resulted in reforms over the 1980s. He recognised the national resistance during WW2, civil marriage, the dowry was abolished, while education and foreign policy doctrines changed. However, Papandreou's tenure has been associated with corruption, high inflation, stagnation and budget deficits that later caused problems.^[137]

The country adopted the euro in 2001 and successfully hosted the

European sovereign debt crisis. Due to the adoption of the euro, Greece could no longer devalue its currency to regain competitiveness.^[139] In the elections 2012, there was major political change, with new parties emerging from the collapse of the two main parties, PASOK and New Democracy.^[140] In 2015, Alexis Tsipras was elected as prime minister, the first outside the two main parties.^[141] The Greek government-debt crisis, and subsequent austerity policies, resulted in social strife. The crisis ended around 2018, with the end of the bailout mechanisms and return of growth.^[142] Simultaneously, Tsipras, and the leader of North Macedonia, Zoran Zaev, signed the Prespa Agreement, solving the naming dispute that had strained the relations and eased the latter's way to become a member of the EU and NATO.^[143]

In 2019, Kyriakos Mitsotakis became Greece's new prime minister, after his centre-right New Democracy won the election.^[144] In 2020, Greece's parliament elected a non-partisan candidate, Katerina Sakellaropoulou, as the first female President of Greece.^[145] In February 2024, Greece became the first Orthodox Christian country to recognise same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples.^[146]

Geography

Navagio (shipwreck) bay, Zakynthos

island

Located in Southern^[147] and Southeast Europe,^[148] Greece consists of a mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the sea at the southern end of the Balkans, ending at the Peloponnese peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth) and strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa.^[d] Due to its highly indented coastline and numerous islands, Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world with 13,676 km (8,498 mi);^[154] its land boundary is 1,160 km (721 mi). The country lies approximately between latitudes 34° and 42° N, and longitudes 19° and 30° E, with the extreme points being:^[155]

North: Ormenio village
South: Gavdos island
East: Strongyli (Kastelorizo, Megisti) island
West: Othonoi island

Gods of Olympus

.

Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most mountainous in Europe. Mount Olympus, the mythical abode of the Greek Gods, culminates at Mytikas peak 2,918 metres (9,573 ft),^[156] the highest in the country. Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the Pindus mountain range. The Pindus, a continuation of the Dinaric Alps, reaches a maximum elevation of 2,637 m (8,652 ft) at Mt. Smolikas (the second-highest in Greece) and historically has been a significant barrier to east–west travel.

The Pindus range continues through the central Peloponnese, crosses the islands of

Vikos-Aoos National Park in the Pindus range, is listed by the Guinness book of World Records as the deepest gorge in the world.^[157] Another notable formation are the Meteora rock pillars, atop which have been built medieval Greek Orthodox monasteries.^[158]

Northeastern Greece features another high-altitude mountain range, the

East Macedonia and Thrace; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests, including the famous Dadia Forest in the Evros regional unit

, in the far northeast of the country.

Extensive plains are primarily located in the regions of Thessaly, Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few arable places in the country. Rare marine species such as the pinniped seals and the loggerhead sea turtle live in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense forests are home to the endangered brown bear, the Eurasian lynx, the roe deer and the wild goat.

Islands

Greece features a vast number of islands—between 1,200 and 6,000, depending on the definition,^[159] 227 of which are inhabited—and is considered a non-contiguous transcontinental country. Crete is the largest and most populous island; Euboea, separated from the mainland by the 60 m-wide Euripus Strait, is the second largest, followed by Lesbos and Rhodes.

The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the following clusters: the

Argo-Saronic Islands in the Saronic gulf near Athens; the Cyclades, a large but dense collection occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea; the North Aegean islands, a loose grouping off the west coast of Turkey; the Dodecanese, another loose collection in the southeast between Crete and Turkey; the Sporades

, a small tight group off the coast of northeast Euboea; and the Ionian Islands, located to the west of the mainland in the Ionian Sea.

Climate

The

mainland Greece. The Pindus mountain range strongly affects the climate of the country, as areas to the west of the range are considerably wetter on average (due to greater exposure to south-westerly systems bringing in moisture) than the areas lying to the east of the range (due to a rain shadow effect),^[162] resulting to some coastal areas in the south falling to the hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh) category, such as parts of the Athens Riviera and some of the Cyclades, as well as some areas in the north featuring a cold equivalent climate (Köppen: BSk), such as the cities of Thessaloniki and Larissa

.

The mountainous areas and the higher elevations of northwestern Greece (parts of

East Macedonia and Thrace feature a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa) with cold, damp winters and hot, moderately dry summers with occasional thunderstorms. Snowfalls occur every year in the mountains and northern areas, and brief periods of snowy weather are possible even in low-lying southern areas, such as Athens.^[163]

Biodiversity

marine biodiversity.^[166]

Politics

Katerina Sakellaropoulou
President of Greece

Kyriakos Mitsotakis
Prime Minister of Greece

Count Ioannis Kapodistrias, first governor, founder of the modern Greek State, and distinguished European diplomat

Greece is a

social rights.^[168]^[169] Women's suffrage

was guaranteed with an amendment to the 1952 Constitution.

The nominal head of state is the

current leader of the political party that can obtain a vote of confidence by the Parliament. The president of the republic formally appoints the prime minister and, on their recommendation, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Cabinet.^[167]

Legislative powers are exercised by a 300-member elective unicameral Parliament.^[167] Statutes passed by the Parliament are promulgated by the President of the Republic.^[167] Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the President of the Republic is obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier on the proposal of the Cabinet, in view of dealing with a national issue of exceptional importance.^[167] The President is also obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier if the opposition manages to pass a motion of no confidence.^[167] The voting age is 17.^[171]

According to a 2016 report by the OECD, Greeks display a moderate level of civic participation compared to most other developed countries; voter turnout was 64 percent during recent elections, lower than the OECD average of 69 percent.^[172]

Political parties

Since the restoration of democracy in 1974-5, the Greek party system was dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy (ND) and the social-democratic Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK).^[e] PASOK and New Democracy largely alternated in power until the outbreak of the government-debt crisis in 2009, whenceforth they experienced a sharp decline in popularity.^[174]^[175]^[176]^[177]^[178]

In the

new elections in June 2012, New Democracy and PASOK participated in a coalition government.^[179]

SYRIZA has since overtaken PASOK as the main party of the centre-left.

September 2015 general election.^[184] However, the July 2019 general election was a landslide for New Democracy and its leader Kyriakos Mitsotakis was sworn as the new Prime Minister of a centre-right government.^[185]^[186] Other parties represented in the Hellenic Parliament are the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), Greek Solution, New Left, Spartans, Victory and Course of Freedom

.

Foreign relations

Greece's foreign policy is conducted through the

State of Israel, the United States and the United Kingdom.^[189]^[190]^[191]^[192]^[193]^[194]

Following the resolution of the

Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus.^[195]

There is a long-standing conflict between Turkey and Greece over natural resources in the eastern Mediterranean. Turkey does not recognize a legal continental shelf and exclusive economic zone around the Greek islands.^[196]

Additionally, due to its political and geographical proximity to Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Greece is a country of significant geostrategic importance, which it has leveraged to develop a regional policy to help promote peace and stability in the

Mediterranean, and the Middle East.^[197] This has accorded the country middle power status in global affairs.^[198]

Greece is a member of numerous international organizations, including the

Organisation internationale de la francophonie

and the United Nations, of which it is a founding member.

Military

F-16 Fighting Falcon, the main combat aircraft of the Hellenic Air Force, during an airshow

A Leopard 2A6 HEL of the Hellenic Army

on parade in Athens

The Hellenic Armed Forces are overseen by the

Hellenic National Defense General Staff (Greek: Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας – ΓΕΕΘΑ), with civilian authority vested in the Ministry of National Defence. It consists of three branches:^[199]

Hellenic Army (Ellinikos Stratos, ES)
Hellenic Navy (Elliniko Polemiko Navtiko, EPN)
Hellenic Air Force (Elliniki Polemiki Aeroporia, EPA)

Moreover, Greece maintains the

Ministry of Shipping

.

Greek military personnel total 364,050, of whom 142,700 are active and 221,350 are reserve. Greece ranks 28th in the world in the number of citizens serving in the armed forces. Mandatory military service is generally one year for 19 to 45 year olds.^[200] Additionally, Greek males between the ages of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may be required to serve part-time in the National Guard.

As a member of

seventh-highest

on a per capita basis, and the second-highest in NATO after the United States. Moreover, Greece is one of only five NATO countries to meet or surpass the minimum defence spending target of 2 percent of GDP.

Law and justice

The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the Supreme Civil and Criminal Court of Greece, the Council of State and the Court of Audit. The judicial system is also composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between citizens and the Greek administrative authorities.

The Hellenic Police is the national police force. It is a large agency with its responsibilities ranging from

counter-terrorism. It was established in 1984 as the result of the fusion of the Hellenic Gendarmerie and the Cities Police forces.^[202]

Administrative divisions

Since the

autonomous area, Mount Athos (Greek: Agio Oros, "Holy Mountain"),^[203] which borders the region of Central Macedonia.^[204]

No.	Region	Capital	Area (km²)	Area (sq mi)	Population^[205]	GDP ( bn)^[206]
1	Attica	Athens	3,808	1,470	3,814,064	€84
2	Central Greece	Lamia	15,549	6,004	508,254	€8
3	Central Macedonia	Thessaloniki	18,811	7,263	1,795,669	€24
4	Crete	Heraklion	8,259	3,189	624,408	€9
5	East Macedonia and Thrace	Komotini	14,158	5,466	562,201	€7
6	Epirus	Ioannina	9,203	3,553	319,991	€4
7	Ionian Islands	Corfu	2,307	891	204,532	€3
8	North Aegean	Mytilene	3,835.91	1,481	194,943	€2
9	Peloponnese	Tripoli	15,490	5,981	539,535	€8
10	South Aegean	Ermoupoli	5,286	2,041	327,820	€6
11	Thessaly	Larissa	14,034	5,420	688,255	€9
12	West Greece	Patras	11,350	4,382	648,220	€8
13	West Macedonia	Kozani	9,451	3,649	254,595	€4
(14)	Mount Athos	Karyes	390	151	1,746	—

Economy

As of 2023^[update], the economy was the

high-income.^[215]^[213]

Greece is a

merchant shipping (at 18%^[221] of the world's total capacity, the Greek merchant marine is the largest in the world), while the country is a considerable agricultural producer (including fisheries) within the union. In 2021 unemployment stood at 13% and youth unemployment at 33%, compared with respectively 7% and 16% in the EU and eurozone.^[222]

Greece has the largest economy in the Balkans,[223]^[224]^[225] and an important regional investor.^[223]^[224] It has been the number-two foreign investor of capital in Albania and most important trading partner and largest foreign investor of North Macedonia.^[226]^[227] The Greek telecommunications company OTE has become a strong investor in other Balkan countries.^[228]

Greece was a founding member of the

single market was signed, and completed in 1982. Greece was accepted into the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union in June 2000, and in January 2001 adopted the euro as its currency, replacing the Greek drachma.^[229] Greece is a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization

.

Debt crisis (2010–2018)

Leading up to the 2007–2008 financial crisis, Greece had high structural deficits.^[230] In 2009, it was revealed deficits had been considerably higher than official figures.^[231] Banks had supplied cash in exchange for future payments by various governments; in turn the liabilities of the countries were "kept off the books", hiding borrowing levels.^[232]^[233]^[234] This enabled Greece to spend beyond its means, while technically meeting the deficit target in the Maastricht Treaty.^[235]^[236]

The crisis was triggered by the Great Recession, which caused Greece's GDP to contract 2.5% in 2009.^[237] Simultaneously, deficits were revealed to have been allowed to reach 10% and 15% in 2008 and 2009. This caused Greece's debt-to-GDP ratio to increase to 127%.^[238] As a eurozone member, Greece had no autonomous monetary policy flexibility, it could not change interest rates or let its exchange rate absorb the shock. Greece's borrowing rates increased, causing a crisis of confidence in Greece's ability to pay back loans in early 2010.^[239]^[240]

To avert a sovereign default, Greece, other eurozone members, and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a €110 billion rescue package in May 2010.^[241]^[242] Greece was required to adopt harsh austerity measures to bring its deficit down.^[243] A second bail-out of €130 billion was agreed in 2012, subject to financial reforms and further austerity.^[244] A debt haircut was agreed.^[244] Greece achieved a budget surplus in 2013 and returned to growth in 2014.^[245]^[246]

Partly due to the imposed austerity,^[231] Greece experienced a 25% drop in GDP between 2009-15.^[247] The debt ratio, jumped from 127% to about 170%, due to the shrinking economy.^[248] In 2013, the IMF admitted it had underestimated the effects of tax hikes and budget cuts and issued an informal apology.^[249]^[250]^[251] The policies have been blamed for worsening the crisis,^[252]^[253] while others stressed the creditors' share in responsibility.^[254]^[255]^[248] The bailouts ended in 2018.^[142]

In 2024, the Greek economy is forecast to grow nearly 3%, meaning it approaches its pre-crisis size of 2009 and far outpacing the euro zone average economic growth of 0.8%.^[256]

Agriculture

Greece is the European Union's largest producer of

pistachios (7,200 tons in 2021),^[258]^[259] second in olives (3m tons in 2021), third in figs (8,400 tons in 2022) and watermelons (440,000 tons in 2022) and fourth in almonds (40,000 tons in 2022).^[259]

Agriculture contributes 3.8% of GDP and employs 12% of the labor force.

Greece is a major beneficiary of the EU's Common Agricultural Policy. As a result of entry to the European Community, much of its agricultural infrastructure has been upgraded and output increased.

Energy

Electricity production is dominated by the state-owned Public Power Corporation (known by its acronym ΔΕΗ, transliterated as DEI), which supplied 75% of electricity in 2021.^[260] Some of DEI's output is generated using lignite.^[261] Renewable energy in Greece accounted for 46% of Greece's electricity in 2022,^[262] a rise from the 11% in 2011.^[263] 22% comes from wind power, 14% solar power, 9% hydropower and 38% natural gas.^[264] Independent companies' energy production has increased. Greece does not have any nuclear power plants.

Maritime

merchant fleet^[265]

making it the largest in the world. They are ranked in the top 5 for all kinds of ships, including first for tankers and bulk carriers.

The shipping industry has been a key element of economic activity since ancient times.[266] Shipping remains one of the country's most important industries, accounting for 5% of GDP and employing about 160,000 people (4% of the workforce).^[267]

The

Greek Merchant Navy is the largest in the world at 18% of global capacity.^[221] The merchant fleet ranks first in tonnage (384 million dwt), 2nd in number of ships (at 4,870),^[221] first in tankers and dry bulk carriers, fourth in the number of containers, and fifth in other ships.^[268] The number of ships flying a Greek flag (includes non-Greek fleets) is 1,517, or 5% of the world's tonnage (ranked fifth globally). Today's fleet is smaller than an all-time high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s.^[266] During the 1960s, the Greek fleet nearly doubled, through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos.^[269] The modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold by the U.S. government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s.^[269]

Greece has a significant shipbuilding and ship maintenance industry. The six shipyards around the port of Piraeus are among the largest in Europe.^[270] Greece has become a leader in the construction and maintenance of luxury yachts.^[271]

Tourism

Santorini, a popular tourist destination, is ranked as the world's top island in many travel magazines and sites.^[272]^[273]

Tourism has been a key element of the economy and one of the most important sectors, contributing 21% of gross domestic product in 2018.^[274] Greece was the 9th most visited country in the world in 2022, hosting 28 million visitors,^[11] an increase from 18 million tourists in 2007.^[275]

Most visitors come from the European continent,

region of Greece is Central Macedonia.^[277]

In 2011,

19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Greece,^[279] and Greece is ranked 17th in the world in total sites. Thirteen further sites are on the tentative list, awaiting nomination.^[279]

Spianada Square

is in the foreground.

Transport

Rio–Antirrio bridge connects mainland Greece to the Peloponnese

Since the 1980s, the road and rail network has been modernised. With a total length of about 2320 km as of 2020, Greece's motorway network is the most extensive in

Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel that passes under the mouth of Ambracian Gulf

.

Also completed are the

Pyrgos, is under planning. Other important projects underway include the construction of the Thessaloniki Metro, and the Northern Crete Motorway.^[281]

The Athens Metropolitan Area in particular is served by some of the most modern and efficient transport infrastructure in Europe, such as the Athens International Airport, the privately run A6 (Attiki Odos) motorway network and the expanded Athens Metro system. Most Greek islands and main cities are connected by air, by the two major airlines, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines.

Railway connections play a lesser role than in many other European countries, but have been expanded, with new suburban/commuter rail connections, serviced by Proastiakos around Athens, towards its airport, Kiato and Chalkida; around Thessaloniki, towards the cities of Larissa and Edessa; and around Patras. A modern intercity rail connection between Athens and Thessaloniki has been established, while an upgrade to double lines in many parts of the 2,500 km (1,600 mi) network is underway; along with a new double track, standard gauge railway between Athens and Patras (replacing the old metre-gauge Piraeus–Patras railway) which is under construction and opening in stages.^[282] International railway lines connect Greek cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey.

Given Greece's long coastline and number of islands, maritime transport is particularly important. All major islands are served by ferries to the mainland.

catamarans

.

Greece has 39 active airports, 15 of which serve international destinations.^[284] Athens International Airport served over 28 million passengers in 2023.^[285] Most major islands are served by airports, with direct connections to other airports in Europe.

Telecommunications

Modern digital information and communication networks reach all areas. There are over 35,000 km (21,748 mi) of fiber optics and an extensive open-wire network. Broadband internet availability is widespread in Greece: there were a total of 2,252,653 broadband connections as of early 2011^[update], translating to 20% broadband penetration.^[286] In 2017 around 82% of the population used the internet regularly.^[287]

Internet cafés that provide net access, office applications and multiplayer gaming are a common sight, while mobile internet on 3G and 4G- LTE cellphone networks and Wi-Fi connections can be found almost everywhere.^[288] As of July 2022, 5G service is accessible in most of major cities. The UN ranks Greece among the top 30 countries with a highly developed information and communications infrastructure.^[289]

Science and technology

Thessaloniki Science Center and Technology Museum

Georgios Papanikolaou, a pioneer in cytopathology and early cancer detection

The General Secretariat for Research and Technology of the Ministry of Development and Competitiveness is responsible for designing, implementing and supervising national research and technological policy. In 2017, spending on research and development (R&D) reached an all-time high of €2 billion, equal to 1.1% of GDP.^[290]

Greece was ranked 42nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.^[291]

Greece has major technology parks with incubator facilities and been a member of the

Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Initiative.^[292] The National Centre of Scientific Research "Demokritos" was founded in 1959 and is the largest multidisciplinary research center in Greece. Its activities cover several fields of science and engineering.^[293]

Greece has one of the highest rates of tertiary enrollment in the world,

research impact, surpassing both the EU and global average from 2012 to 2016.^[296]

Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor of the Pap test), mathematician Constantin Carathéodory (known for the Carathéodory theorems and Carathéodory conjecture), astronomer E. M. Antoniadi, archaeologists Ioannis Svoronos, Valerios Stais, Spyridon Marinatos, Manolis Andronikos (discovered the tomb of Philip II of Macedon in Vergina), Indologist Dimitrios Galanos, botanist Theodoros G. Orphanides, and scientists such as Michael Dertouzos, Nicholas Negroponte, John Argyris, John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award, the "Nobel Prize" of Computer Science), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gödel Prize), Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize) and physicist Dimitri Nanopoulos.

Demographics

Eurostat estimated the population at 10.6 million in 2022.^[297]

Greek society has changed over recent decades, coinciding with the

wider European trend of declining fertility and aging. The birth rate in 2016 was 8.5 per 1,000, significantly lower than the rate of 14.5 in 1981. The mortality rate increased from 8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 11.2 in 2016.^[298]

The

replacement rate of 2.1, and one of the lowest in the world, considerably below the high of 5.5 children in 1900.^[299] Subsequently, Greece's median age is 44.2 years, the seventh-highest in the world.^[300] In 2001, 17% of the population were 65 years old and older, 68% between the ages of 15 and 64 years old, and 15% were 14 years old and younger.^[301] By 2016, the proportion of the population age 65 and older had risen to 21%, while the proportion of those aged 14 and younger declined to slightly below 14%. Marriage rates began declining from almost 71 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 51 in 2004.^[301] Divorce rates have seen an increase from 191 per 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 240 per 1,000 marriages in 2004.^[301]

As a result of these trends, the average household is smaller and older than in previous generations. The economic crisis exacerbated this development, with 350,000–450,000 Greeks, predominantly young adults, emigrating since 2010.[302]

Cities

Almost two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas. Greece's largest and most influential metropolitan centres are

2021 census) and Thessaloniki (population 1,092,919 in 2021) that latter commonly referred to as the symprotévousa (συμπρωτεύουσα, lit. 'co-capital').^[303] Other prominent cities with populations above 100,000 inhabitants include Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Rhodes, Ioannina, Agrinio, Chania, and Chalcis.^[304]

v t e Largest cities or towns in Greece Hellenic Statistical Authority 2021 census ^[305]
	Rank	Name	Region	Pop.	Rank	Name	Region	Pop.
Athens Thessaloniki	1	Athens	Attica	3,090,508	11	Serres	Central Macedonia	58,287	Patras Piraeus
	2	Thessaloniki	Central Macedonia	824,676	12	Alexandroupoli	Eastern Macedonia and Thrace	57,812
	3	Patras	Western Greece	173,600^[306]	13	Xanthi	Eastern Macedonia and Thrace	56,122
	4	Piraeus	Attica	168,151	14	Katerini	Central Macedonia	55,997
	5	Heraklion	Crete	156,842^[307]	15	Kalamata	Peloponnese	54,100
	6	Larisa	Thessaly	148,562^[308]	16	Kavala	Eastern Macedonia and Thrace	54,027
	7	Volos	Thessaly	85,803^[309]	17	Chania	Crete	53,910
	8	Ioannina	Epirus	65,574	18	Lamia	Central Greece	52,006
	9	Trikala	Thessaly	61,653	19	Komotini	Eastern Macedonia and Thrace	50,990
	10	Chalcis	Central Greece	59,125	20	Rhodes	South Aegean	49,541

Religion

Religiosity in Greece (2017):[1]

Catholics

) (1%)

The Greek Constitution recognises

Patriarchate of Constantinople

.

In a 2010 Eurostat–Eurobarometer poll, 79% of Greek citizens responded that they "believe there is a God".^[312] According to other sources, 16% of Greeks describe themselves as "very religious", which is the highest among all European countries. The survey found just 3.5% never attend a church, compared to 5% in Poland and 59% in the Czech Republic.^[313]

Estimates of the recognised

Kars Oblast, after it had been retroceded to Turkey prior to the population exchange.^[316]

Judaism has been present in Greece for more than 2,000 years. The ancient community of Greek Jews is called

German occupation of Greece and the Holocaust, it is estimated to number around 5,500 people.^[311]^[314]

The

International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and various Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church total about 12,000 members.^[319] The independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches.^[320] There are no official statistics about the Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers as 20,000.^[321] The Jehovah's Witnesses report having 28,874 active members.^[322]

Since 2017,

Hellenic Polytheism, or Hellenism has been legally recognised as an actively practised religion,^[323] with estimates of 2,000 active practitioners and an additional 100,000 "sympathisers".^[324]^[325]^[326] Hellenism refers to religious movements that continue, revive, or reconstruct ancient Greek religious practices

.

Languages

Greece is relatively homogeneous in linguistic terms, with a large majority of the native population using Greek as their first or only language. Among the Greek-speaking population, speakers of the distinctive

Greek Macedonia and other parts of Northern Greece. The Tsakonian language, a distinct Greek language deriving from Doric Greek instead of Koine Greek

, is still spoken in villages in the southeastern Peloponnese.

The Muslim minority in Thrace, approximately 0.95% of the population, consists of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomaks)^[332] and Romani. Romani is spoken by Christian Roma in other parts of the country. Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various areas. Their use decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek-speaking majority. They are only maintained by the older generations and almost extinct. The same is true for the Arvanites, an Albanian-speaking group mostly located in rural areas around Athens, and for the Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians whose language is closely related to Romanian and who used to live scattered across areas of mountainous central Greece. Members of these groups usually identify ethnically as Greek^[333] and are bilingual in Greek.

Near the northern Greek borders there are some

Ukraine

who arrived in Northern Greece as economic migrants in the 1990s.

Migration

Throughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks migrated to the

Soviet Bloc.^[335]

A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory maintains that the 2001 census recorded 762,191 persons residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of the population. Of the non-citizen residents, 48,560 were EU or European Free Trade Association nationals and 17,426 were Cypriots with privileged status. The majority come from Eastern European countries: Albania (56%), Bulgaria (5%) and Romania (3%), while migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.) comprise 10% of the total.^[336] Some immigrants from Albania are from the Greek minority in Albania centred on the region of Northern Epirus. The total Albanian national population which includes temporary migrants and undocumented persons is around 600,000.^[337]

The

2011 census recorded 9,903,268 Greek citizens (92%), 480,824 Albanian citizens (4.4%), 75,915 Bulgarian citizens (0.7%), 46,523 Romanian citizenship (0.4%), 34,177 Pakistani citizens (0.3%), 27,400 Georgian citizens (0.25%) and 247,090 people had other or unidentified citizenship (2%).^[338] 189,000 people of the total population of Albanian citizens were reported in 2008 as ethnic Greeks from Southern Albania, in the historical region of Northern Epirus.^[335]

The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population are in the larger urban centers, especially Athens, with 132,000 immigrants comprising 17% of the local population, and then Thessaloniki, with 27,000 immigrants reaching 7% of the local population. There is a considerable number of co-ethnics that came from the Greek communities of Albania and former Soviet Union.^[335]

Greece, together with Italy and Spain, is a major entry point for

Evros River and the islands of the eastern Aegean across from Turkey. In 2012, most illegal immigrants came from Afghanistan, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.^[339] In 2015, arrivals of refugees by sea had increased dramatically due to the Syrian civil war. There were 856,723 arrivals by sea in Greece, an almost fivefold increase to the same period of 2014, of which the Syrians represented almost 45%.^[340] Most refugees and migrants use Greece as a transit country, while their intended destinations are northern European Nations such as Austria, Germany and Sweden.^[341]^[342]

Education

This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: The description of the secondary, post-secondary and tertiary education does not reflect the current situation. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2024)

Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education), which was upheld as one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world. The first European institution described as a university was founded in fifth-century Constantinople and continued operating in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.^[343] The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning,^[344] and by some measures was the world's first university.^[343]

Compulsory education in Greece comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, Dimotikó Scholeio) and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο). Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, Paidikós Stathmós) are popular but not compulsory. Kindergartens (Νηπιαγωγείο, Nipiagogeío) are compulsory for any child above four. Children start primary school aged six and remain there for six years. Attendance at gymnasia starts aged 12 and lasts for three years.

Greece's post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Γενικό Λύκειο, Genikό Lykeiό) and

technical–vocational

educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά Εκπαιδευτήρια, "TEE"). Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (Ινστιτούτα Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης, "IEK") which provide a formal but unclassified level of education. As they can accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not classified as offering a particular level of education.

According to the Framework Law (3549/2007), Public higher education "Highest Educational Institutions" (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, "ΑΕΙ") consists of two parallel sectors:the university sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education). There are State Non-University Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2-3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries. Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of Lykeio. Students over 22 may be admitted to the Hellenic Open University through a lottery.

The education system provides special kindergartens, primary, and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning. There are specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, theological, and physical education.

72% of adults aged 25–64 have completed upper secondary education, which is slightly less than the OECD average of 74%. The average Greek pupil scored 458 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD's 2015 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). This is lower than the OECD average of 486. Girls outperformed boys by 15 points, much more than the average OECD gap of 2.^[345]

Healthcare system

Greece has

social health insurance (SHI). Per a 2000 World Health Organization report, its health system ranked 14th in overall performance of 191 countries surveyed.^[346] In a 2013 Save the Children report, Greece was ranked the 19th out of 176 countries for the state of mothers and newborn babies.^[347] As of 2014, there were 124 public hospitals, of which 106 were general hospitals and 18 specialised hospitals, with a total capacity of about 30,000 beds.^[348]

Greece's healthcare expenditures was 9.6% of GDP in 2007. By 2015, it declined to 8.4%, compared with the EU average of 9.5%. Nevertheless, the country maintains the highest doctor-to-population ratio of any OECD country [349] and the highest doctor-to-patient ratio in the EU.^[350]

Blue Zone", a region where people allegedly live longer than average and have lower rates of cancer, heart disease, or other chronic illnesses.^[352]

A 2011 OECD report showed Greece had the largest percentage of adult daily smokers of any of the 34 OECD members.[349] The obesity rate is 18%, above the OECD average of 15%.^[349] In 2008, infant mortality, with a rate of 3.6 deaths per 1,000 live births, was below the 2007 OECD average of 4.9.^[349]

Culture

The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, still used for theatrical plays

The culture of Greece has evolved, beginning in

Genoese Republic, and the British Empire have left their influence on modern Greek culture, though historians credit the Greek War of Independence

with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single, cohesive entity of its multi-faceted culture.

In ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of

Western art.^[358]

Visual arts

Artistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek

Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt.^[359]

There were interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to technical differences, they underwent differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, described as panel paintings. Wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae. Much figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome.^[360]

Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments survive. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th century, that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact.^[361]

Art production continued during the Byzantine era. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract", or anti-naturalistic character. Classical art was marked by attempts to create representations that mimicked reality, Byzantine art favoured a more symbolic approach. Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies. The Macedonian art (Byzantine) was the artistic expression of Macedonian Renaissance, a label used to describe the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire (867–1056), which scholars have seen as a time of increased interest in classical scholarship and the assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork.

Post Byzantine art schools include the

Greek Kingdom can be considered the Greek academic art of the 19th century (Munich School). Modern Greek painters include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Theodoros Vryzakis, Nikiforos Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Nikos Engonopoulos and Yannis Tsarouchis, while notable sculptors are Pavlos Prosalentis, Ioannis Kossos, Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos and Yannoulis Chalepas

.

Architecture

Ermoupolis, on the island Syros

, first capital of independent Greece.

The architecture of ancient Greece was produced by the ancient Greeks (Hellenes), whose

Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on Western architecture

.

Byzantine architecture was dominant in the Greek speaking world and significantly influenced Medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, becoming the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed the Byzantine Empire's collapse..

After Greek Independence, modern Greek architects combined traditional Greek and Byzantine elements and motives with the western European movements and styles. Patras was the first city of the modern Greek state to develop a city plan. In 1829, Stamatis Voulgaris, a Greek engineer of the French army, presented the plan of the new city to the Governor Kapodistrias, who approved it. Voulgaris applied the orthogonal rule in the urban complex of Patras.^[362]

Two special genres can be considered the Cycladic architecture, featuring white-coloured houses, in the

Ionian islands and the "Mediterranean style" of Florestano Di Fausto (during the fascist regime) in the Dodecanese islands.^[365]

After the establishment of the

King of Greece, Otto of Greece, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for a capital. After the Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917, the government ordered for a new city plan under the supervision of Ernest Hébrard. Other modern Greek architects include Anastasios Metaxas, Lysandros Kaftanzoglou, Panagis Kalkos, Ernst Ziller, Xenophon Paionidis, Dimitris Pikionis and Georges Candilis

.

There is an emerging need to secure the long-term preservation of the archaeological sites and monuments against the growing threats of climate change.[366]

Theatre

Theatre in its western form was born in Greece.^[367] The city-state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there.

During the Byzantine period, theatrical art declined, the only form that survived was folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the state.

Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists of the era include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis

.

Modern Greek theatre was born after independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The

nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis

and others.

The

Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun

.

Literature

*Parnassos Literary Society*, painted by Georgios Roilos (Kostis Palamas is at the center)

Greek literature can be divided into three main categories: Ancient, Byzantine and modern Greek.

rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period. The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar

. The Classical era also saw the dawn of drama.

Of the hundreds of

tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors have survived: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The surviving plays by Aristophanes are a treasure trove of comic presentation, while Herodotus and Thucydides

are two of the most influential historians in this period. The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy with the works of the three great philosophers.

Medieval and early Modern Greek, is the expression of the intellectual life of the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages. Although popular Byzantine literature and early Modern Greek literature both began in the 11th century, the two are indistinguishable.^[372]

Constantine P. Cavafy, whose work was inspired mainly by the Hellenistic past, while Odysseas Elytis (centre) and Giorgos Seferis (right) were representatives of the Generation of the '30s and Nobel laureates in Literature.

Diafotismos), writers such as Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios

prepared with their works the Greek Revolution.

Leading figures of modern Greek literature include

George Seferis in 1963 and Odysseas Elytis

in 1979.

Philosophy

Most western philosophical traditions began in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. The first philosophers are called "Presocratics", which designates that they came before Socrates, whose contributions mark a turning point in western thought. The Presocratics were from the western or the eastern colonies of Greece and only fragments of their writings survive.

A new period of philosophy started with Socrates. Like the

Sophists, he rejected the physical speculations of his predecessors, and made the thoughts and opinions of people his starting-point. Aspects of Socrates were first united from Plato

, who also combined with them many of the principles established by earlier philosophers, and developed the whole of this material into the unity of a comprehensive system.

Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Neoplatonism.^[373]

Olympian Gods of the ancient world. After 1453 Greek Byzantine scholars who fled to western Europe contributed to the Renaissance

.

In the modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, "enlightenment", "illumination")^[374] was the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical and political ideas. Notable representatives were Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis. Other modern era Greek philosophers or political scientists include Cornelius Castoriadis, Nicos Poulantzas and Christos Yannaras.

Music and dances

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traditional folk music

Greek vocal music extends far back into ancient times where mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music played an important role in education during ancient times. Boys were taught music from the age of six. Later influences from the Roman Empire, Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire affected Greek music.

While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the

Byzantine chant

; a melodic music, with rhythmical variety and expressive power.

Along with Byzantine chant and music, the Greeks cultivated the

Digenes Akritas. The klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and start of the Greek War of Independence. The klephtic cycle, together with historical songs, paraloghes (narrative song or ballad), love songs, mantinades

, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks. There is a unity between the Greek people's struggles for freedom, their joys and sorrow and attitudes towards love and death.

Mikis Theodorakis was one of the most popular and significant Greek composers.

The

kantádhes (καντάδες 'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) became the forerunners of the Greek modern urban popular song, influencing its development. For the first part of the next century, Greek composers continued to borrow elements from the Heptanesean style. The most successful songs during 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades, and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revues, operettas and nocturnes

that were dominating Athens' theater scene.

laïkó (song of the people). The leading performers of the genre include Vassilis Tsitsanis, Grigoris Bithikotsis, Stelios Kazantzidis, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou and Glykeria

.

It was through the

Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή), established in 1815. Prominent representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer. Manolis Kalomiris

is considered the founder of the Greek National School of Music.

In the 20th century, Greek composers had significant impact on the development of

Greek American composers known for their film scores include Yanni and Basil Poledouris. Greek opera singers and classical musicians of the 20th and 21st century include Maria Callas, Nana Mouskouri, Mario Frangoulis, Leonidas Kavakos, Dimitris Sgouros

and others.

During the

Greek rock.^[376] The song was echoing the hippie slogan "make love, not war" and was inspired directly by the Vietnam War, becoming a "smash hit" in Greece.^[377]

Greece participated in the

Elena Paparizou, which became a smash hit in different countries and especially in Greece, and the 51st Eurovision Song Contest of 2006 was held in Athens

.

Cuisine

dolmades (rice, currants and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives and cheese. Olive oil is a widespread addition.^[379]

Sweet desserts include

bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed. Many recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use "sweet" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews.^[380]^[379] Koutoukia are an underground restaurant common in Greece.^[381]

Cinema

European cinema

Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first cine-theatre was opened in 1907 in Athens. In 1914, the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films began. Golfo, a well known traditional love story, is considered the first Greek feature film, although there were minor productions such as newscasts before. In 1931, Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe, containing one of the first nude scene in European cinema;^[382] it was the first Greek movie played abroad.^[383] In 1944, Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls.^[384]

The 1950s and early 1960s are considered to be a "golden age" of Greek cinema.

O Drakos (1956, by Nikos Koundouros), Stella (1955, directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis), Woe to the Young (1961, by Alekos Sakellarios), Glory Sky (1962, by Takis Kanellopoulos) and The Red Lanterns (1963, by Vasilis Georgiadis

)

Cacoyannis directed

I theia ap' to Chicago

, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο and many more.

During the 1970s and 1980s, Theo Angelopoulos directed notable movies. His film Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.^[387]^[388]^[389]

There are internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora, such as the Greek-French

Best Foreign Language Film for Dogtooth (2009), Best Original Screenplay for The Lobster (2015), and Best Picture and Best Director for The Favourite (2018).^[390]

Sports

UEFA Euro 2004 Final

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Greece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, and hosted the modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics. During the parade of nations, Greece is always called first, as the founding nation of the ancient precursor of modern Olympics. The nation has competed at every Summer Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done so. Having won a total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd by gold medals in the all-time Summer Olympic medal count. Their best ever performance was in the 1896 Summer Olympics, when Greece finished second in the medal table with 10 gold medals.

The

Greek Super League is the highest professional football league, comprising fourteen teams. The most successful are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, and AEK Athens

.

The

2005 European Championship

triumph of the Greek national basketball team, Greece became the reigning European Champion in both football and basketball.

Greek national basketball team

in 2008. Twice European champions (1987 and 2005) and second in the world in 2006.

The

LEN Trophies

and 2 European Supercups.

The

European Cup

.

Public holidays and festivals

According to Greek law, every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. Since the late '70s, Saturday also is a non-school and not working day. In addition, there are four mandatory official public holidays: 25 March (

Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, 15 August (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin), and 25 December (Christmas). 1 May (Labour Day) and 28 October (Ohi Day) are regulated by law as being optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed national holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven national holidays each year. In addition to the national holidays, there are public holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint" parallel to "Name Days", or a "Liberation Day".^[398]

On such days it is customary for schools to take the day off.

Notable festivals, beyond the religious fests, include

Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe.^[399]

Notes

^ Greek: Ελλάδα, romanized: Elláda, [eˈlaða] or Ελλάς, romanized: Ellás, [eˈlas]
^ Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, romanized: Ellinikí Dimokratía, [eliniˈci ðimokraˈti.a]
^ On 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus; Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.
^ See:^[149]^[150]^[151]^[152]^[153]
^ For a diachronic analysis of the Greek party system,^[173] who distinguishes three distinct types of party system which developed in consecutive order, namely, a predominant-party system (from 1952 to 1963), a system of polarised pluralism (between 1963 and 1981), and a two-party system (since 1981).

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^ Gregory, TE (2010). A History of Byzantium. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 169. It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic "invasions" were probably for the most part the same as those who had lived there earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small immigrants caused people to look at themselves as distinct from their neighbors, including the Byzantines.

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ISBN 978-0-203-50191-7
. Retrieved 27 May 2013. second largest investor of foreign capital in Albania, and the third largest foreign investor in Bulgaria. Greece is the most important trading partner of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

ISBN 978-1-61048-898-3
. Retrieved 27 May 2013. Greeks are already among the three largest investors in Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia, and overall Greek investment in the ... Its banking sector represents 16% of banking activities in the region, and Greek banks open a new branch in a Balkan country almost weekly.

ISBN 978-1-85743-136-0
. Retrieved 27 May 2013. show that Greece has become the largest investor into Macedonia (FYRM), while Greek companies such as OTE have also developed strong presences in countries of the former Yugoslavia and other Balkan countries.

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Bibliography

Main article: Bibliography of Greece

"Minorities in Greece – Historical Issues and New Perspectives". History and Culture of South Eastern Europe. An Annual Journal. München (Slavica) 2003.

The Constitution of Greece (PDF). Paparrigopoulos, Xenophon; Vassilouni, Stavroula (translators). Athens:
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Clogg, Richard (1992). A Concise History of Greece (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–37.
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Dagtoglou, PD (1991). "Protection of Individual Rights". Constitutional Law – Individual Rights (in Greek). Vol. I. Athens-Komotini: Ant. N. Sakkoulas.

Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. University of Michigan Press.
ISBN 978-0-472-08149-3
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Gehrke, Hans-Joachim (1995). Geschichte des Hellenismus. Oldenbourg Grundriss der Geschichte (in German). München: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag.

Hatzopoulos, Marios (2009). "From resurrection to insurrection: 'sacred' myths, motifs, and symbols in the Greek War of Independence". In Beaton, Roderick; Ricks, David (eds.). The making of Modern Greece: Nationalism, Romanticism, and the Uses of the Past (1797–1896). Ashgate. pp. 81–93.

Hornblower, Simon (2011). The Greek World, 479-323 BC. Routledge History of the Ancient World (4th ed.). London: Routledge.

Kalaitzidis, Akis (2010). Europe's Greece: A Giant in the Making. Palgrave Macmillan., 219 pp. The impact of European Union membership on Greek politics, economics, and society.

Koliopoulos, John S.; Veremis, Thanos M. (2002). Greece: The Modern Sequel. From 1831 to the Present. London: Hurst & Co.

Kostopoulos, Tasos (2011). "La guerre civile macédonienne de 1903–1908 et ses représentations dans l'historiographie nationale grecque". Cahiers Balkaniques. 38–39: 213–226.
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External links

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39°N 22°E / 39°N 22°E / 39; 22

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Name

History

Prehistory and Aegean civilizations

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