Greece–Turkey relations

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Greece–Turkey relations
Map indicating locations of Greece and Turkey

Greece

Turkey
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of Greece, AnkaraEmbassy of Turkey, Athens

Relations between Greece and Turkey began in the 1830s following Greece's formation after its declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. Modern relations began when Turkey declared its formation in 1923 following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.

Greece and Turkey have a rivalry with a history of events that have been used to justify their nationalism.[1][2] These events include the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, the Istanbul pogrom and Cypriot intercommunal violence. Greek-Turkish feuding was not a significant factor in international relations from 1930 to 1955, and during the Cold War, domestic and bipolar politics limited competitive behaviour against each other.[3][4] By the mid-1990s and later decades, these restraints on their rivalry were removed, and both nations had become each other's biggest security risk.[5][6]

Control of the

Dodecanese to Greece's territory have caused turbulence in the relationship. Several issues frequently affect their current relations, including territorial disputes over the sea and air, minority rights, and Turkey's relationship with the European Union (EU) and its member states—especially Cyprus.[7][8]
Control of energy pipelines is also an increasing focus in their relations.

Diplomatic missions

The first official diplomatic contact between Greece and the Ottoman Empire occurred in 1830.[9] Consular relations between the two countries were established in 1834.[10] In 1853, a Greek embassy was opened in Istanbul; this was discontinued during periods of crisis and eventually transferred to the new capital Ankara in 1923 when the Republic of Turkey was formed.[10]

embassy in Athens and consulates general in Thessaloniki, Komotini and Rhodes.[11][12][13][14][15] Greece's missions in Turkey include its embassy in Ankara, and consulates general in Istanbul, İzmir and Edirne.[16][17][18][19][20]


  • Consulate general of Greece in Istanbul
    Consulate general of Greece in Istanbul
  • Consulate general of Greece in Izmir
    Consulate general of Greece in Izmir

History

Background

The histories of the Byzantine Empire and Ottoman Empire factor into modern relations between Turkey and Greece.[21] Anthony Kaldellis views the Byzantine Empire as the medieval expression of a Greek nation and a pre-modern nation state.[22] There is a debate that Turkey is not a successor state but the legal continuation of the Ottoman Empire as a republic.[23][24]

The Greek presence in Asia Minor (Anatolia) dates to the Late Bronze Age (1450 BC) or earlier.[25] The Göktürks of the First Turkic Khaganate was the first Turkic state to politically use the name Türk.[26] The first contact with the Byzantine Empire is believed to have occurred in AD 563.[27][28] In the 10th century, the Seljuk Turks rose to power.[29]

The first conflict between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuk Turks occurred at the

Seljuk Sultanate.[30] One of those beyliks was the Ottoman dynasty, which became the Ottoman Empire.[31]
[32] In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire.[33]

Much of modern Greece and Turkey came under Ottoman rule in the 15th century.[34] During the following centuries, there were sporadic but unsuccessful Greek uprisings against Ottoman rule.[35] Greek nationalism started to appear in the 18th century.[36] In March 1821. the Greek War of Independence began.[37]

Greece and the Ottoman Empire relations: 1822–1923

The black area indicates the territory claimed by Venizelos, a proponent of the Megali Idea, at the Paris Peace conference after World War I in 1919. The shaded region is where Greek and French claims conflict.

Following the Greek War of Independence, Greece was formed as an independent state in 1830.

Eastern Thrace and the Smyrna area in the Treaty of Sèvres. Greek gains were largely undone by the subsequent Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922).[42]

Population of Greeks in Asia Minor after the Balkan Wars
Great fire of Smyrna
. The photo was taken from the launch boat of a US warship.

Mustafa Kemal Pasha (later Atatürk), who was to become the leader of the Turkish opposition to the Treaty of Sèvres, landed in Samsun on 19 May 1919, an action that is regarded as the beginning of the Turkish War of Independence. Mustafa Kemal united the protesting voices in Anatolia and began a nationalist movement to repel the Allied armies that had occupied the Ottoman Empire and establish new borders for a sovereign Turkish nation. The Turkish nation would be Western in civilisation and would elevate Turkish culture that had faded under Arab culture; this included disassociating Islam from Arab culture and restricted it to the private sphere.[43]

The Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally

Treaty of Lausanne (1923) ended all conflict and replaced previous treaties to constitute modern Turkey.[44][45] The treaty provided for a population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[46]

The treaty also contained a declaration of amnesty for the perpetrators of crimes that were committed between 1914 and 1922, a period which was marked by

many atrocities.[47][48] The Greek genocide was the systematic killing of the Christian-Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia which started before World War I, and continued during the war and its aftermath (1914–1922).[49][50]

Initial relations between Greece and Turkey: 1923–1945

Territorial Expansion of Greece from 1832 to 1947

Following the population exchange, Greece wanted to end hostilities but negotiations stalled because of the issue of valuations of the properties of the exchanged populations.[51][52] Driven by Eleftherios Venizelos in co-operation with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as well as İsmet İnönü's government, a series of treaties between Greece and Turkey were signed in 1930, in effect restoring Greek-Turkish relations and establishing a de facto alliance between the two countries.[53] As part of these treaties, Greece and Turkey agreed the Treaty of Lausanne would be the final settlement of their respective borders, pledged they would not join opposing military or economic alliances, and to immediately stop their naval arms race.[53]

The Balkan Pact of 1934 was signed, in which Greece and Turkey joined Yugoslavia and Romania in a treaty of mutual assistance, and settled outstanding issues. Venizelos nominated Atatürk for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1934.[54]

Greece was a signatory to a 1936 agreement that gives Turkey control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits, and regulates the transit of naval warships. The nations signed the 1938 Salonika Agreement which abandoned the demilitarised zones along the Turkish border with Greece that were a result of the Treaty of Lausanne.[55]

In 1941, due to Turkey's neutrality during the Second World War, Britain lifted the blockade and allowed shipments of grain from Turkey to relieve the

Kızılay, the Turkish Red Crescent, and the operation was funded by the American Greek War Relief Association and the Hellenic Union of Constantinopolitans.[56]

During this period, the Greek minority that remained in Turkey faced discriminatory targeting. In 1941 in anticipation of the Second World War, in the Twenty Classes, adult male Armenians, Greeks and Jews were conscripted into labour battalions.[57] In 1942, Turkey imposed the Varlık Vergisi, a special tax that heavily impacted the non-Muslim minorities of Turkey. Officially, the tax was devised to fill the state treasury that would have been needed if Germany or the Soviet Union invaded the country. The tax's main purpose, however, was to nationalise the Turkish economy by reducing minority populations' influence and control over the country's trade, finance, and industries.[58]

Post World War II relations: 1945–1982

The Dodecanese islands

Following the power vacuum left by the ending of the Axis occupation after the war, the

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO);[61] in 1952, both countries joined NATO;[62][63] and in 1953, Greece, Turkey and Yugoslavia formed a new Balkan Pact
for mutual defence against the Soviet Union.

Ethnic map of Cyprus in 1973. Gold denotes Greek Cypriots, purple denotes Turkish Cypriot enclaves and red denotes British bases.[64]

According to

Geopolitical Futures, three events contributed to the deterioration of post-1945 bilateral relations:[65]

  1. After the defeat of Italy in the Second World War, the long-standing issue of sovereignty over the Dodecanese archipelago, which had been a sore point since the Venizelos–Tittoni agreement between Greece and Italy, was resolved to Greece's favour in 1946, upsetting Turkey because it changed the balance of power.[66][67] Turkey renounced claims to the Dodecanese in the Treaty of Lausanne but future administrations wanted them for security reasons, and possibly due to the Cyprus issue.[67]
  2. After the decolonisation of Cyprus, conflict between Greeks and Turks broke out on the island.
    Zürich and London Agreement—invaded Cyprus.[78] The Turkish Federated State of Cyprus was declared one year later.[79]
  3. Starting in 1958 and expanded in 1982 for the issue of territorial waters, the
    U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) replaced the older concept of freedom of the seas, which dated from the 17th century. According to this concept, national rights were limited to a specified belt of water extending from a nation's coastlines, usually 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi)—known as the three-mile limit. By 1967, only 30 nations still used the old three-nautical-mile convention.[80] It was ratified by Greece in 1972 but Turkey has not ratified it, asking for a bilateral solution since 1974 which uses the mid-line of the Aegean instead[81]
nautical miles
(nmi): Current territorial waters recognised by Greece and Turkey, and airspace as recognised by Turkey

In 1955, the Adnan Menderes government is believed to have orchestrated the Istanbul pogrom, which targeted the city's substantial Greek ethnic minority and other minorities.[82][83] In September 1955, a bomb exploded close to the Turkish consulate in Greece's second-largest city Thessaloniki, also damaging the Atatürk Museum, site of Atatürk's birthplace, breaking some windows but causing little other damage.[84] In retaliation, in Istanbul, thousands of shops, houses, churches and graves belonging to members of the ethnic Greek minority were destroyed within a few hours, over 12 people were killed and many more injured.[85] The ongoing struggle between Turkey and Greece over control of Cyprus, and Cypriot intercommunal violence, were concurrent with the pogrom.[86][87] Pressure over the resulting London Conference to discuss Cyprus, and to direct attention away from the domestic political problems were the likely motivation of the Turkish Menderes government.[88]

In 1964, Turkish prime minister

expelled.[91] A 1971 Turkish law nationalised religious high schools and closed the Halki seminary on Istanbul's Heybeli Island, an issue that affects 21st-century relations.[92][93]

Contemporary history and issues

Greek Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou meeting with Turkish Prime Minister Turgut Özal in Davos, February 1986

Military and diplomatic tensions

Towards the end of the 20th century, there were several high profile incidents between the countries. In 1986 by the border at the Evros River, a Greek soldier was shot dead.[94] In 1987, the Turkish survey ship Sismik 1 nearly triggered a war.[95] In 1995, a military crisis erupted over an uninhabited island called Imia, over which both countries claim sovereignty.

Lesser incidents where both side exchange fire often occur. This creates volatility when relations are tense and the risk of starting war.[96][97]

In the 1990s, Duygu Bazoglu Sezer claims Greece pursued a policy of encircling Turkey.[98] Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, both Greece and Turkey viewed each other with suspicion as they developed relations with the new countries.[99] In 1995, however, this fear materialised.[98] Greece formed a defence co-operation agreement with Syria, and between 1995 and 1998 established good relations with Turkey's other neighbours Iran and Armenia.[100] In reaction, Turkey spoke with Israel in 1996, which caused uproar in Arab countries.[101]

Dr. R. Craig Nation of the United States Army War College views the conflict between the nations as a fight for control over the Aegean Sea and the eastern Mediterranean.[102]

Positive relations

Abdullah Öcalan, founder of the PKK, designated a terrorist organisation and banned in the US, UK, EU and Turkey[103][104][105]

In 1995, relations began to change with the Greek election of

Kostas Simitis who redefined priorities but it wasn't until the meeting of the foreign ministers the following years that this was noticed.[106] In 1998, the capture of the Kurdish separatist Abdullah Öcalan– on the way from the Greek embassy in Kenya – and the related fallout led to the Greek foreign minister resigning, whose replacement was with a strong supporter for discussions with Turkey.[107][108] The 1999 İzmit earthquake followed by the 1999 Athens earthquake led to an outpouring of goodwill and what has been called earthquake diplomacy that aided in a change of relations.[109][110]

In the years that followed, relations improved.[111] They included agreements on fighting organised crime, reducing military spending, preventing illegal immigration, and clearing land mines on the border. Additionally, Greece lifted its opposition to Turkey's accession to the European Union (EU).[112] Dr R. Craig Nation states there was a lot of progress but ultimately not on the issues that mattered.[113]

In December 2023, a new attempt was made at peaceful relations. Dialogue has opened, with the signing of a declaration on good neighbourly relations.[114] Pundits however remain unconvinced it means anything, at least until the Cyprus issue is addressed.[115]

The Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean conflicts

The conflict between Turkey and Greece is largely over whether the Greek islands are allowed an

UNCLOS defined territorial waters in 1982 and came into force in 1994.[122][123]

There are 168 nations as signatories of the treaty, including Greece but not Turkey.[124] Turkey disputes Greece can claim 12 miles off the coast of its islands, which the sea treaty permits, implying only the mainland has this right, otherwise it would give Greece dominant control of the Aegean.[116] Turkey has made a claim for the economic zone by splitting the Aegean Sea in the middle.[125] The EU requires membership of the sea treaty as a condition.[126]

There has been an extension of the conflict with other nations in the Mediterranean. In 2019 and 2022, Turkey made

countered with Greece and Egypt.[127][128][129]

The Cyprus dispute created a subsequent military build up.[130][131] The dispute escalated with Greece's coup in Cyprus, which led to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. In 1974, Greece reacted with the militarisation of the Greek islands off the coast of Turkey, the legality of which is challenged by Turkey. In 1975, Turkey created Izmir army base. Military buildups in 2022 have continued.[132][133][134][135][136][excessive citations]

Cyprus and the EU

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
has been recognised only by Turkey since its establishment in 1983.

Greece has been a member of the EU since 1981.[137] Cyprus joined in 2004.[138] Turkey submitted its application to join in 1987 and became a full candidate in 1999.[139]

Greece since its admission had made a concentrated effort to oppose Turkey's admission to the EU and was scapegoated for resentment when it happened.[98][140] This is despite its change of policy post 1995 and that was advocated during the Papandreou government.[112] Concerns about Turkey's developmental and demographic imbalances as well as human rights and its war with Abdullah Öcalan’s Kurdish Workers Party (PKK) were factors in the EU decision but in Turkey it was felt due to the “Christians’ Club" of the EU.[141] In Turkey, this contributed to the shift away from Turkey's founding secular doctrine Kemalism and the rise of political Islam.[142] There was a change to the Kemalism amnesia of the Ottoman Empire's past, which instead became a source of pride and identity for Turkey.[143] Kemalism evolved to an alternative identity of European orientation as Turkey became a regional centre in the emerging Eurasian political formation.[143]

In the 1990s, friction around Turkey's EU accession involving Cyprus was paralleled by military tensions between Turkey and Greece.[144] In 1994, Greece and Cyprus agreed on a security doctrine that would mean any Turkish military action in Cyprus would cause war with Greece.[145] In 1997, Cyprus purchased two Soviet-era S-300 missile systems, resulting in a political standoff between Cyprus and Turkey.[146] Negotiations on the division on the island in the 1990s failed because of the Turkish side's recognition of North Cyprus as an independent state, an issue that remains as of 2022.[147][148] When Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, the possibility of a veto by Cyprus contributed to other issues involving Turkey.[149]

Turkey's migrant crisis has also had a big effect on its relationship with the EU.[150] The enforcement of the arms embargo against Libya Operation Irini brought other EU members into conflict with Turkey. Gas drilling on territory disputed with Greece using research vessel RV MTA Oruç Reis led to EU sanctions against Turkey.[151][152][153][excessive citations
]

Energy pipelines

61% of the world's proven gas reserves come from three predominant nations (Russia, Iran, Qatar) and the CIS nations that surround the Caspian Sea.

The 2010 discovery of natural gas deposits in the eastern Mediterranean, first by Israel and then Egypt, has increased tensions between Greece and Turkey.[154] The region is estimated to contain 5% of the world's known natural gas reserves.[155] Historical security issues of the Aegean and Cyprus are important for resolving Europe's energy needs.[155] The 2016 Turkey-Israel reconciliation led to Greece sabotaging the 2017 Cyprus-UN talks to reunify the island, preventing Israel and Turkey from developing a gas pipeline.[154] In 2019, the east Mediterranean gas forum was created, including seven countries but excluding Turkey.[154]

The region is considered the end-point for east–west pipelines.[144] In 2007, the countries inaugurated the Greek-Turkish natural gas pipeline, giving gas from the Caspian Sea its first direct Western outlet.[156] The Caspian Sea is one of the oldest oil-producing regions; it is estimated to have reserves of 48 billion barrels,[157] and 292 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.[157] The opening of these fields followed more than 20 years of negotiation following the 2018 convention on the legal status of the Caspian Sea.[158] Outside of the Caspian Sea nations, there are other suppliers that wish to leverage the geographical positioning of the nations. In May 2022, Greece signed a deal with Turkey's rival the United Arab Emirates for the distribution of the UAE's liquefied natural gas.[159][160]

Minority rights

The treaty of Lausanne provided for the protection of the Greek Orthodox Christian minority in Turkey and the Muslim minority in Greece.[161] The Greek minority in Turkey has shrunk from over 200,000 in 1923 to only 2,000 in 2023, while the Turkish minority in Greece has remained steady at 120,000 in the same period.[162]

Minorities in both countries since have been affected by the state of relations between them. Minorities are used as leverage, using the principle of reciprocity.

Halki Seminary which was closed in 1971.[164] As a reaction in 1972, Greece closed a Turkish school in Rhodes.[164] In recent years[when?], Turkey has used its cultural heritage, such as Sumela Monastery, to achieve political ends.[165][166]

The Theological School of Halki at the top of the Hill of Hope.

Examples of minority mistreatment include:

  • During World War II, Turkey nationalised its industry and imposed the Varlık Vergisi, a discriminatory wealth tax that targeted minorities.[167]
  • Turkey blamed Greeks for Turkey's economic problems, resulting in the Istanbul pogrom.[164]
  • In 1967, the Greek military government deported Turkish citizens on the Dodecanese peninsula.[164]
  • In 1955, Greece's Article 19 of the Nationality Code established two classes of Greek citizens; those of "non-Greek descent" lost their citizenship if they left the country. By the time of its abolition in 1998, 60,000 people had lost their citizenship and the abolition had no retroactive effect.[168]

The election of Muftis in Greece and the reopening of the Halki Seminary in Turkey have become the most prominent issues.[93] Issues around political authority and pre-conditions contribute to the stalemate.[169][170][171] Former Greek prime minister George Papandreou has said Turkey and Greece would benefit if they treated minorities as citizens rather than foreigners.[169]

Migrants

Basis for the EU-Turkey Joint Action Plan; Syrian asylum applications highest among all nationalities between 1 January and 30 June 2015[172]

Turkey has become a transit country for people entering Europe.[173] In 2015, the route that passes from Turkey to Greece and then through the Balkan countries became the most-used route for migrants escaping conflicts in the Middle East and North Africa, with irregular migration from further East continuing.[150] Turkey assumed the role of guardian of the Schengen Area, protecting it from irregular migration.[150] This, combined with Turkey's migrant crisis, has resulted in illegal migration being a key issue between Turkey and the EU.[150] People moving across the border of Greece and Turkey are a frequent cause of incidents between the two countries.[174][175][176][177][178][179][excessive citations]

In 2016, the EU and Turkey reached a

similar to the previous one would occur.[180][181][182][excessive citations
]

Turkish insurgents and asylum seekers

During the 2010 trial of those accused of organising a 2003 alleged military coup attempt in Turkey called

Sledgehammer, the conspirators were accused of planning attacks on mosques, triggering a conflict with Greece by Turkey shooting down one of its own warplanes and then accusing Greeks of this and planting bombs in Istanbul to initiate a military takeover.[183][184][185]

Greece has on many occasions arrested members of the

DHKP-C who planned attacks in Turkey.[186][187][188] Turkey has accused Greece of supporting terrorists such as the DHKP-C.[189]

Turkey has seen a slide to authoritarianism resulting in Turkish refugees becoming more common, like politician

2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, after which 995 people, including military personnel, applied for asylum.[191][192][193][194][195][196][197][198][199][200][201][202][excessive citations] More than 1,800 Turkish citizens requested asylum in Greece in 2017, including those who plotted the assassination.[203][204] Sometimes, this causes tensions between the nations in other areas.[205][206][207][excessive citations
]

Timeline

Year Date Event
1923 30 January Turkey and Greece sign the
Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations agreement[208]
24 July Treaty of Lausanne is signed.[209] It would come into force 6 August 1924.
1926 26 June Mahalli Idareler Kanunu (the local government act; no. 1151/1927), concerning the local administration of Imbros and Tenedos islands was published, which stripped the islands of their local governance.[210] This was seen as revoking article 14 of the Treaty of Lausanne; it is argued the provisions were never observed.[211]
1933 14 September Greece and Turkey sign a Pact of Cordial Friendship.[212]
1934 9 February Greece and Turkey, as well as Romania and Yugoslavia, sign the Balkan Pact, a mutual defence treaty.[213]
1938 27 April Greece and Turkey sign the Additional Treaty to the Treaty of Friendship, Neutrality, Conciliation and Arbitration of 30 October 1930, and the Pact of Cordial Friendship of 14 September 1933.[214]
1941 6 October SS Kurtuluş starts the first of five voyages, carrying humanitarian aid to Greece to alleviate the Great Famine during the Axis occupation of Greece.[215]
1942 11 November Turkey nationalises its industry and enacts Varlık Vergisi, a discriminatory tax targeted at non-Muslims minorities, including the Greek minority.[167]
1947 31 March British authorities hand over the Dodecanese islands to Greece
Treaty of Peace with Italy
.
1950 Greece and Turkey both fight in the
UN forces.[217]
1952 18 February Greece and Turkey officially become members of NATO.[218]
1953 28 February The Balkan Pact between Greece, Turkey and Yugoslavia is enacted.[219]
1955 6–7 September The Istanbul pogrom, in which the Greek population of Istanbul were targeted, occurs.[164]
1963 21 December Bloody Christmas (1963)[220][221]
1964 Turkish prime minister İsmet İnönü renounces the Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship of 1930 and took actions against the Greek minority.[89][90]
1971 Halki Theological College, the higher education component of Halki seminary and the only school where the Greek minority in Turkey educated its clergymen, is closed by Turkish authorities. All private, religious or academic, Muslim and non Muslim, are closed that year.[222]
1971-74 Oil is discovered in the north Aegean near the Greek island Thasos.[223] It is the first major discovery since exploration started in the mid-1960s.[224]
1974 15 July The
Greek Junta sponsors the 1974 Cypriot coup d'état[225]
20 July – 18 August Turkey invades Cyprus.[225]
1987 27–30 March 1987 Aegean crisis[226]
1994 7 March The Greek government declares May 19 as a day of remembrance of the (1914–1923) Genocide of Pontic Greeks.[227]
1995 21 July Greece ratifies the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea [228] Turkey says the exercise of this treaty, if Greece expands its territorial waters to 12 nm, would be casus belli.[229]
26 December Imia-Kardak crisis[226]
1997 5 January
Cyprus Missile Crisis[226]
1999 Abdullah Öcalan (Kurdish rebel leader), leaving the Greek embassy, is captured in Kenya and causes a crisis[226][230]
2001 14 September The Greek government declares September 14 as a day of remembrance of the Genocide of the Hellenes of Asia Minor by the Turkish state.[227]

See also

Notes

References

  1. S2CID 143599413
    .
  2. .
  3. .
  4. .
  5. .
  6. .
  7. ^ "Issues of Greek - Turkish Relations - Hellenic Republic – Ministry of Foreign Affairs". www.mfa.gr. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  8. ^ "From Rep. of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs". Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  9. ^ Kapodistrias, Ioannis (1830). "Recognition and Establishment of Diplomatic and Consular Relations". Hellenic Republic, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  10. ^ a b "The Greek Embassy in Istanbul – Onassis Cavafy Archive". Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  11. ^ "Turkey's embassy in Athens". Turkish embassy in Athens. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  12. ^ "Turkey's consulate in Athens". Turkish consulate general in Athens. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  13. ^ "Turkey's consulate in Thessaloniki". Turkey's consulate in Thessaloniki. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  14. ^ "Turkey's consulate in Komotini". Turkey's consulate in Komotini. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  15. ^ "Turkish consulate in Rhodes". Turkish consulate in Rhodes. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  16. ^ "Turkey - Contact details for Greek Missions". Foreign Ministry of Greece. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  17. ^ "Greece's embassy in Ankara". Foreign Ministry of Greece. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  18. ^ "Greece's embassy in Istanbul". Foreign Ministry of Greece. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  19. ^ "Greece's embassy in Izmir". Foreign Ministry of Greece. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  20. ^ "Greece's embassy in Edirne". Foreign Ministry of Greece. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  21. ^ Isiskal, Hüseyin (2002). "An Analysis of the Turkish-Greek Relations from Greek 'Self' and Turkish 'Other' Perspective: Causes of Antagonism and Preconditions for Better Relationships" (PDF). Turkish Journal of International Relations. 1: 118.
  22. S2CID 174769546
    .
  23. .
  24. .
  25. ^ Kelder, Jorrit (2004–2005). "The Chariots of Ahhiyawa". Dacia, Revue d'Archéologie et d'Histoire Ancienne (48–49): 151–160. The Madduwatta text represents the first textual evidence for Greek incursions on the Anatolian mainland ... Mycenaeans settled there already during LH IIB (around 1450 BC; Niemeier, 1998, 142).
  26. . The first people to use the ethnonym Turk to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century
  27. ISSN 2412-3196. {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help
    )
  28. . Retrieved 23 January 2022.
  29. ^ Lars Johanson; Éva Ágnes Csató Johanson (2015). The Turkic Languages. p. 25. The name 'Seljuk is a political rather than ethnic name. It derives from Selčiik, born Toqaq Temir Yally, a war-lord (sil-baši), from the Qiniq tribal grouping of the Oghuz. Seljuk, in the rough and tumble of internal Oghuz politics, fled to Jand, c.985, after falling out with his overlord.
  30. ^ Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 6–7.
  31. ^ Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. p. 122. That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it.
  32. ^ Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Indiana University Press. p. 10. In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe.
  33. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.457.975
    .
  34. .
  35. ^ Woodhouse, A Story of Modern Greece, 'The Dark Age of Greece (1453–1800)', p. 113, Faber and Faber (1968).
  36. S2CID 144013073
    .
  37. ^ "War of Greek Independence | History, Facts, & Combatants | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  38. S2CID 246011519
    .
  39. ^ Theophilus C. Prousis. Review of Macfie, A. L., The Eastern Question, 1774–1923. Habsburg, H-Net Reviews. December, 1996. [1]
  40. .
  41. ^ Anderson and Hershey, pp. 439-440.
  42. ^ Petsalis-Diomidis, Nicholas. Greece at the Paris Peace Conference/1919. Inst. for Balkan Studies, 1978.
  43. S2CID 44340675
    .
  44. ^ "The Grand National Assembly of Turkey". global.tbmm.gov.tr. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  45. ^ "Treaty of Peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne". Treaty of Lausanne - World War I Document Archive. World War I Document Archive. 24 July 1923. Retrieved 2 June 2022.[unreliable source?]
  46. ^ PontosWorld. "The Exchange of Populations Between Greece and Turkey". PontosWorld. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  47. ^ The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 18., No. 2, Supplement:Official Documents (Apr. 1924), pp. 92–95.
  48. JSTOR 1192189
    . Initially, the Allied Powers sought the prosecution of those responsible for the massacres. The Treaty of Sevres, which was signed on 10 August 1920, would have required the Turkish Government to hand over those responsible to the Allied Powers for trial. Treaty of Peace between the Allied Powers and Turkey [Treaty of Sevres], art. 230, at 235, Aug. 10, 1920, reprinted in 15 AM. J. INT'L L. 179 (Supp 1921). "The Treaty of Sevres was, however, not ratified and did not come into force. It was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne, which not only did not contain provisions respecting the punishment of war crimes, but was accompanied by a 'Declaration of Amnesty' of all offenses committed between 1914 and 1922." Treaty of Peace between the Allied Powers and Turkey [Treaty of Lausanne], July 24, 1923, League of Nations Treaty Series 11, reprinted in 18 AM. J. INT'L L. 1 (Supp. 1924). 99.
  49. .
  50. .
  51. .
  52. .
  53. ^ a b 100+2 Χρόνια Ελλάδα [100+2 Years of Greece]. Vol. A. I Maniateas Publishing Enterprises. 2002. pp. 208–209.
  54. ^ Mangoe, Andrew (1999). Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey. John Murray. p. 487.
  55. .
  56. .
  57. ^ ""21st CENTURY" N 1, 2008". www.noravank.am. p. 65. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  58. .
  59. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1994). World Orders, Old And New. Pluto Press London.
  60. S2CID 161542583
    .
  61. .
  62. ^ NATO. "Turkey and NATO - 1952". NATO. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
  63. ^ NATO. "Greece and NATO - 1952". NATO. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
  64. ^ Map based on map from the CIA publication Atlas: Issues in the Middle East, collected in Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas Libraries web site.
  65. ^ a b Colibasanu, Antonia (27 July 2021). "Turkey's Strategy in the Eastern Med". Geopolitical Futures. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
  66. S2CID 235843284
    .
  67. ^ a b "Dodecanese Issue Revived by Turks; Greeks Scoff at New Claim to Some Aegean Islands". The New York Times. 24 May 1964.
  68. . From early 1950s onward Greece has favored union with Cyprus through a policy of enosis
  69. . The rise of Turkish nationalism among the Turkish Cypriots can be largely seen as a response to the Greek Cypriot national "awakening" and campaign for union with Greece.
  70. ^ Kızılyürek, Niyazi (2003). "The politics of identity in the Turkish Cypriot community: a response to the politics of denial?". Travaux de la Maison de l'Orient méditerranéen. 37 (1): 197–204. The Turkish Cypriot nationalism developed mainly in reaction to the Greek Cypriot national desire for union with Greece.
  71. .
  72. .
  73. .
  74. ^ UN The Official Record of United Nations Security Council 1780th Meeting (19.07.1974)
  75. .
  76. .
  77. .
  78. . The Greek Cypriots and much of the international community refer to it as an "invasion.
  79. ^ "Cyprus History: 1975 Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (TFSC)". www.cypnet.co.uk.
  80. ^ "The Three-Mile Limit: Its Juridical Status". Valparaiso University Law Review. 6 (2): 170–184. 3 June 2011.
  81. OCLC 84602250
    .
  82. .
  83. .
  84. ^ Turkey and the West: From Neutrality to Commitment, p. 310, at Google Books
  85. ^ Yaman, Ilker (17 March 2014). "The Istanbul Pogrom". We Love Istanbul.
  86. JSTOR 43899216
    .
  87. .
  88. .
  89. ^ a b "Turks Expelling Istanbul Greeks; Community's Plight Worsens During Cyprus Crisis". The New York Times. 9 August 1964.
  90. ^ .
  91. . Retrieved 9 February 2022.
  92. .
  93. ^ .
  94. ^ "Greece demands apology, compensation for soldier's death". UPI. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
  95. ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved 4 June 2022.
  96. ^ "Turkey-Greece: From Maritime Brinkmanship to Dialogue". Crisis Group. 31 May 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  97. ^ a b c Sezer, Duygu Bazoglu (1999). "TURKISH SECURITY CHALLENGES IN THE 1990s". Mediterranean Security into the Coming Millennium: 263–279.
  98. ^ Oya Akgönenç, "A Precarious Peace in Bosnia-Herzegovina: The Dayton Accord and Its Prospect for Success," in R. Craig Nation, ed., The Yugoslav Conflict and Its Implications for International Relations, Ravenna: Longo Editore, 1998, pp. 61–70.
  99. ^ Sezer, Duygu Bazoglu (1999). "TURKISH SECURITY CHALLENGES IN THE 1990s". Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College: 270.
  100. ^ Sezer, Duygu Bazoglu (1999). "TURKISH SECURITY CHALLENGES IN THE 1990s". Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College: 271.
  101. US Army War College
    : 283 – via JSTOR.
  102. ^ PKK Criminal Networks and Fronts in Europe
  103. ^ What is the PKK? And why Turkey and Europe cannot agree on the answer
  104. ^ Statewatch News online: EU adds the PKK to list of terrorist organisations
  105. ^ Nation, R. Craig (2003). "Greece, Turkey, Cyprus". War in the Balkans, 1991-2002: 304.
  106. ^ "BBC News | Europe | Greek ministers resign over Ocalan". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
  107. .
  108. .
  109. .
  110. ^ Nation, R. Craig (2003). "Greece, Turkey, Cyprus". War in the Balkans, 1991-2002: 308.
  111. ^ a b "EU warms towards Turkey". BBC News. 13 September 1999. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  112. ^ Nation, R. Craig (2003). "Greece, Turkey, Cyprus". War in the Balkans, 1991-2002: 308–309.
  113. ISSN 0261-3077
    . Retrieved 8 December 2023.
  114. ^ Rose, Caroline D. (4 December 2023). "Turkey and Greece Are Talking Again". Geopolitical Futures. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
  115. ^ a b "Greece v. Turkey, Maritime Conflict Over The Aegean Sea: An International Law Perspective - Marine/ Shipping - Cyprus". www.mondaq.com. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  116. ^ map000. "EU v. Turkey in the Eastern Mediterranean: a good moment to sponsor dispute settlement | The NCLOS Blog". Retrieved 3 June 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  117. JSTOR 44835392
    .
  118. ^ "Blue Homeland: the doctrine behind Turkey's Mediterranean claims". The National. 14 August 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  119. ^ "Treaty of Lausanne - World War I Document Archive". wwi.lib.byu.edu. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
  120. ^ Inan, Yüksel (7 June 2022). "THE AEGEAN DISPUTES" (PDF). Turkish Foreign Policy Institute. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  121. ^ "International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: UNCLOS". www.itlos.org. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  122. , retrieved 3 June 2022
  123. ^ "United Nations Treaty Collection". treaties.un.org. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  124. S2CID 233828342
    .
  125. ^ Newsroom. "EU foreign affairs chief urges Turkey to sign UNCLOS | eKathimerini.com". www.ekathimerini.com. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  126. ^ "ANALYSIS - Strategic, legal aspects of Turkey-Libya deal". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  127. ^ "Egypt, Greece sign maritime deal to counter Libya-Turkey one". AP NEWS. 23 April 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  128. ^ "Turkey-Libya preliminary deal prompts Greece, Egypt to push back". reuters. 3 October 2022.
  129. ^ "Militarization of Eastern Aegean Islands Contrary tp the Provisions of International Agreements / Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs". www.mfa.gov.tr. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  130. ^ "Turkey-Greece: From Maritime Brinkmanship to Dialogue". Crisis Group. 31 May 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
  131. ^ "Türkiye to 'eavesdrop on Greek waters with sonobuoys'". hurriyetdailynews. 7 October 2022.
  132. ^ "Turkey's Leader Warns Greece Its Missiles Can Hit Athens". bloomberg. 11 December 2022.
  133. ^ "Türkiye's ballistic missile test 'scares' Greece: President". aa.com.tr. 11 December 2022.
  134. ^ "Greece continues to increase tension, defense minister says". hurriyetdailynews. 12 December 2022.
  135. ^ "Erdoğan warns Greece that Turkish missiles can reach Athens". politico.eu. 11 December 2022.
  136. ^ "Greece". european-union.europa.eu. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
  137. ^ "Cyprus". european-union.europa.eu. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
  138. ^ "Turkey". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
  139. US Army War College
    : 297.
  140. US Army War College
    : 297.
  141. ^ Nation, R. Craig (2003). "GREECE, TURKEY, CYPRUS". Strategic Studies Institute. US Army War College: 297–298.
  142. ^
    US Army War College
    : 298.
  143. ^ a b Nation, R. Craig (2003). "Greece, Turkey, Cyprus". War in the Balkans, 1991-2002: 279–324.
  144. OCLC 40954044
    .
  145. ^ "Turkey hints at strike on Cypriot missiles". The Independent. 11 January 1997. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
  146. ^ "Turkish Cypriot President slams EU, backs its position - Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 25 December 2021. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
  147. ^ "Tatar insists on sovereign equality to start Cyprus talks". in-cyprus.philenews.com. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
  148. OCLC 882778455
    .
  149. ^ .
  150. ^ "EU leaders approve sanctions on Turkish officials over gas drilling". The Guardian. 11 December 2020.
  151. ^ Michele Kambas; Tuvan Gumrukcu (14 August 2020). "Greek, Turkish warships in 'mini collision' Ankara calls provocative". Reuters.
  152. ^ "Turkey's Oruc Reis survey vessel back near southern shore, ship tracker shows". Reuters. 15 September 2020.
  153. ^ a b c "Analysis: Greek Security Policy | In the Eastern Mediterranean". SETA. 24 February 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
  154. ^
    S2CID 233835370
    .
  155. ^ Carassava, Anthee (19 November 2007). "Greece and Turkey Open Gas Pipeline". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  156. ^ a b "International – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  157. ISSN 0099-9660
    . Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  158. ^ "Greece, UAE agree joint investments in energy, other sectors". Reuters. 9 May 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
  159. .
  160. .
  161. ^ (in English) US Department of State - Religious Freedom, Greece
  162. .
  163. ^ .
  164. ^ Gavra, Eleni; Bourlidou, Anastasia; Gkioufi, Klairi (2012). "Management of the Greek's ekistics and cultural heritage in Turkey". EconStor.
  165. ^ "Tension between Turkey, Greece flares up with row over genocide, Sümela". Hürriyet daily news.
  166. ^ .
  167. .
  168. ^ .
  169. ^ "Hiç engel yok 24 saatte okul açılır". Radikal (in Turkish). Retrieved 21 April 2022.
  170. ^ DHA (2 September 2014). "Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan: Tribünde seyirci değiliz". www.hurriyet.com.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 21 April 2022.
  171. ^ "Asylum quarterly report – Statistics Explained". ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 26 July 2019. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
  172. .
  173. ^ "BBC NEWS – Europe – Landmine deaths on Greek border". 29 September 2003. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
  174. ^ "BBC News – EUROPE – Greece rescues immigrant ship". 5 November 2001. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
  175. ^ "Turkish coast guard caught escorting smugglers into Greece – report". The Sofia Echo. 21 September 2009. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 28 June 2013.
  176. ^ "Turkey's Erdogan accuses Greece of Nazi tactics against migrants at border". reuters. 11 March 2020.
  177. ^ "Greece returns 2 Turkish soldiers at border – Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 10 September 2018.
  178. ^ "Video shows Hellenic Coast Guard vessel being harassed by Turkish one | Kathimerini". www.ekathimerini.com. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
  179. ^ "Greece sees first mass arrival of migrant boats in three years, KAROLINA TAGARIS | Kathimerini". www.ekathimerini.com.
  180. ^ Ensor, Josie; Squires, Nick (30 August 2019). "More than 600 refugees arrive on Lesbos in one day in record high since migrant crisis". The Telegraph – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
  181. ^ "As refugee numbers rise, Greece and Turkey face new border challenges | Thomas Seibert". AW.
  182. ^ "Turkey suspends generals linked to alleged coup plot". Telegraph Media Group Limited. 25 November 2010. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
  183. ^ "Turkey: Military chiefs resign en masse". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 29 July 2011. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
  184. ^ "Factbox: What was Turkey's 'Sledgehammer' trial?". reuters. 9 October 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  185. ^ "DHKP/C arrests in Greece coordinated by CIA, MİT, EYP". Hürriyet Daily News. 13 February 2014. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  186. ^ "Arrested DHKP-C militants plotted to assassinate Erdoğan in Athens: Greek media". Hürriyet Daily News. 18 December 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  187. ^ "Greek court rules to extradite suspected terrorist to Turkey – Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. June 2018.
  188. ^ "Greece harbors terrorist, including PKK, says Turkey". Hürriyet Daily News. 10 April 2021.
  189. S2CID 159124051
    .
  190. ^ "995 Turks seek asylum in Greece". Hürriyet Daily News. 24 October 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  191. ^ "Turkish FM: Military attaches in Athens have fled to Italy". naftemporiki. 8 November 2016.
  192. ^ "Statement about Turkish attaches brings Greek relief". kathimerini.
  193. ^ "Seven Turkish citizens seek asylum in Greece after coup bid". hurriyet. 26 August 2016.
  194. ^ "Seven Turkish citizens requesting asylum in Greece". ekathimerini.
  195. ^ "Turkish judge escapes to Greece on migrant boat, seeks asylum". hurriyet. 30 August 2016.
  196. ^ "Media report: Turkish judicial official requests asylum in Greece". naftemporiki. 30 August 2016.
  197. ^ "Turkish judicial official requests asylum on Greek island". ekathimerini.
  198. ^ "Turkish judge seeks asylum in Greece: news agency". reuters. 30 August 2016.
  199. ^ "Greek media say Turkish boat group sought asylum". www.aa.com.tr.
  200. ^ Stelios Bouras; Nektaria Stamouli (21 September 2016). "Greece Rejects Asylum Requests by Three Turkish Officer". Wall Street Journal – via www.wsj.com.
  201. ^ Stamouli, Nektaria (4 October 2016). "More Turks Seek Asylum in Greece After Coup Attempt". Wall Street Journal – via www.wsj.com.
  202. ^ "Turkish commandos ask for asylum". kathimerini. 23 February 2017.
  203. ^ "Seventeen Turkish citizens seek sanctuary in Greece: Greek coastguard". Hürriyet Daily News. 21 February 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
  204. ^ "Turkey suspends 'migrant readmission' deal with Greece – Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 7 June 2018.
  205. ^ "NATO chief calls for 'calm' amid Turkey-Greece crisis – Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 8 June 2018.
  206. ^ "Sector group: Coup attempt in Turkey to negatively affect Greek tourism". naftemporiki. 8 January 2016.
  207. ^ "Lausanne Peace Treaty VI. Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations Signed at Lausanne, January 30, 1923. / Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs". www.mfa.gov.tr. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
  208. S2CID 246234931
    .
  209. ^ Alexandris, Alexis (1980). Imbros and Tenedos:: A Study of Turkish Attitudes Toward Two Ethnic Greek Island Communities Since 1923 (PDF). Pella Publishing Company. p. 21.
  210. .
  211. . Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  212. .
  213. ^ "ADDITIONAL TREATY TO THE TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP, NEUTRALITY, CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION OF OCTOBER 30TH, 1930, AND TO THE PACT OF CORDIAL FRIENDSHIP OF SEPTEMBER 14TH, 1933, BETWEEN GREECE AND TURKEY. SIGNED AT ATHENS, APRIL 27TH, 1938" (PDF). 1938. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  214. OCLC 9555801
    .
  215. ^ "On This Day: The unification of the Dodecanese islands with Greece". Greek Herald. 7 March 2022. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  216. JSTOR 24911701
    .
  217. ^ "Greece and Turkey join NATO (London, 22 October 1951)". CVCE.EU by UNI.LU. 8 December 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  218. JSTOR 40392639
    .
  219. .
  220. ^ Hazou, Elias (22 December 2013). "1963 is still a historical minefield". Cyprus Mail. Archived from the original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
  221. JSTOR 25655744
    .
  222. ^ Proedrou, P.; Sidiropoulos, T. (1992). "Prinos Field--Greece Aegean Basin". TR: Structural Traps VI. Vol. 20. pp. 275–291.
  223. ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  224. ^ .
  225. ^ .
  226. ^ .
  227. .
  228. ^ "Washingtonpost.com: Three Greek Cabinet Ministers Resign Over Ocalan Affair". www.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 6 June 2022.

Further reading

External links