Greek genocide
Greek genocide | |
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Part of Eastern Thrace | |
Attack type | Deportation, genocide, death marches, others |
Deaths | 300,000–900,000[2][3] (see casualties section below) |
Perpetrators | Ottoman Empire, Turkish National Movement |
Trials | Ottoman Special Military Tribunal |
Motive | Anti-Greek sentiment, Turkification, Anti-Eastern Orthodox sentiment |
Greek genocide | |
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Background | |
Malta Tribunals | |
Part of a series on |
Genocide |
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Issues |
15th–19th century genocides |
Early 20th century genocides |
World War II (1939–1945) |
Cold War (1940s–1991) |
Contemporary genocides |
Related topics |
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Category |
The Greek genocide
By late 1922, most of the Greeks of
The Allies of World War I condemned the Ottoman government–sponsored massacres. In 2007, the International Association of Genocide Scholars passed a resolution recognising the Ottoman campaign against its Christian minorities, including the Greeks, as genocide.[7] Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the Ottoman campaign against these Christian minorities as genocide, as have the national legislatures of Greece,[22][23][5] Cyprus,[24] the United States,[25][26][27][28] Sweden,[29][30] Armenia,[31] the Netherlands,[32][33] Germany,[34][35] Austria[36][37] and the Czech Republic.[38][39][40]
Background
At the outbreak of World War I, Asia Minor was ethnically diverse, its population included Turks and Azeris, as well as groups that had inhabited the region prior to the Ottoman conquest, including Pontic Greeks, Caucasus Greeks, Cappadocian Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, Zazas, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians, Jews, and Laz people.
Among the causes of the Turkish campaign against the Greek-speaking Christian population was a fear that they would welcome liberation by the Ottoman Empire's enemies, and a belief among some Turks that to form a modern country in the era of nationalism it was necessary to purge from their territories all minorities who could threaten the integrity of an ethnically based Turkish nation.[41][42][page needed]
According to a German military attaché, the Ottoman minister of war Ismail Enver had declared in October 1915 that he wanted to "solve the Greek problem during the war … in the same way he believe[d] he solved the Armenian problem", referring to the Armenian genocide.[43] Germany and the Ottoman Empire were allies immediately before, and during World War I. By 31 January 1917, the Chancellor of Germany Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, reported that:
The indications are that the Turks plan to eliminate the Greek element as enemies of the state, as they did earlier with the Armenians. The strategy implemented by the Turks is of displacing people to the interior without taking measures for their survival by exposing them to death, hunger, and illness. The abandoned homes are then looted and burnt or destroyed. Whatever was done to the Armenians is being repeated with the Greeks.
— Chancellor of Germany in 1917, Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century[44]
Origin of the Greek minority
The Greek presence in
During the
The resultant Greek culture in Asia Minor flourished during a millennium of rule (4th century – 15th century AD) under the mainly Greek-speaking
Thus, when the
Events
Balkan Wars to World War I
Greek census (1910–1912) | Ottoman census (1914) | Soteriades (1918)[54] | |
---|---|---|---|
Hüdavendigâr (Prousa) |
262,319 | 184,424 | 278,421 |
Konya (Ikonio) |
74,539 | 65,054 | 66,895 |
Trabzon (Trebizond) |
298,183 | 260,313 | 353,533 |
Ankara (Angora) |
85,242 | 77,530 | 66,194 |
Aydin |
495,936 | 319,079 | 622,810 |
Kastamonu |
24,349 | 26,104 | 24,937 |
Sivas |
74,632 | 75,324 | 99,376 |
İzmit (Nicomedia) | 52,742 | 40,048 | 73,134 |
Biga (Dardanelles) | 31,165 | 8,541 | 32,830 |
Total | 1,399,107 | 1,056,357 | 1,618,130 |
Beginning in the spring of 1913, the Ottomans implemented a programme of expulsions and forcible migrations, focusing on Greeks of the Aegean region and eastern Thrace, whose presence in these areas was deemed a threat to national security.
One of the worst attacks of this campaign took place in
Following similar accords made with Bulgaria and Serbia, the Ottoman Empire signed a small voluntary population exchange agreement with Greece on 14 November 1913.[68] Another such agreement was signed 1 July 1914 for the exchange of some "Turks" (that is, Muslims) of Greece for some Greeks of Aydin and Western Thrace, after the Ottomans had forced these Greeks from their homes in response to the Greek annexation of several islands.[69][70] The swap was never completed due to the eruption of World War I.[69] While discussions for population exchanges were still conducted, Special Organization units attacked Greek villages forcing their inhabitants to abandon their homes for Greece, being replaced with Muslim refugees.[71]
The forceful expulsion of Christians of western Anatolia, especially Ottoman Greeks, has many similarities with
World War I
According to a newspaper of the time, in November 1914, Turkish troops destroyed Christian properties and murdered several Christians at
In July 1915 the Greek chargé d'affaires claimed that the deportations "can not be any other issue than an annihilation war against the Greek nation in Turkey and as measures hereof they have been implementing forced conversions to Islam, in obvious aim to, that if after the end of the war there again would be a question of European intervention for the protection of the Christians, there will be as few of them left as possible."[79] According to George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, by 1918 "over 500,000 Greeks were deported of whom comparatively few survived".[80] In his memoirs, the United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire between 1913 and 1916 wrote "Everywhere the Greeks were gathered in groups and, under the so-called protection of Turkish gendarmes, they were transported, the larger part on foot, into the interior. Just how many were scattered in this fashion is not definitely known, the estimates varying anywhere from 200,000 up to 1,000,000."[81]
Despite the shift of policy, the practice of evacuating Greek settlements and relocating the inhabitants was continued, albeit on a limited scale. Relocation was targeted at specific regions that were considered militarily vulnerable, not the whole of the Greek population. As a 1919 Patriarchate account records, the evacuation of many villages was accompanied with looting and murders, while many died as a result of not having been given the time to make the necessary provisions or of being relocated to uninhabitable places.[82]
State policy towards Ottoman Greeks changed again in the fall of 1916. With Entente forces occupying
Greek deportees were sent to live in Greek villages in the inner provinces or, in some case, villages where Armenians were living before being deported. Greek villages evacuated during the war due to military concerns were then resettled with Muslim immigrants and refugees.[89] According to cables sent to the provinces during this time, abandoned movable and non-movable Greek property was not to be liquidated, as that of the Armenians, but "preserved".[90]
On 14 January 1917 Cossva Anckarsvärd, Sweden's Ambassador to Constantinople, sent a dispatch regarding the decision to deport the Ottoman Greeks:
What above all appears as an unnecessary cruelty is that the deportation is not limited to the men alone, but is extended likewise to women and children. This is supposedly done in order to much easier be able to confiscate the property of the deported.[91]
According to Rendel, atrocities such as
Pontic Greeks responded by forming insurgent groups, which carried weapons salvaged from the battlefields of the Caucasus Campaign of World War I or directly supplied by the Russian army. In 1920, the insurgents reached their peak in regard to manpower numbering 18,000 men.
Greco-Turkish War
After the Ottoman Empire capitulated on 30 October 1918, it came under the de jure control of the victorious Entente Powers. However, the latter failed to bring the perpetrators of the genocide to justice,
In an October 1920 report a British officer describes the aftermath of the massacres at İznik in north-western Anatolia in which he estimated that at least 100 decomposed mutilated bodies of men, women and children were present in and around a large cave about 300 yards outside the city walls.[80]
The systematic massacre and deportation of Greeks in Asia Minor, a program which had come into effect in 1914, was a precursor to the atrocities perpetrated by both the Greek and Turkish armies during the
For the massacres that occurred during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, British historian Arnold J. Toynbee wrote that it was the Greek landings that created the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal:[105] "The Greeks of 'Pontus' and the Turks of the Greek occupied territories, were in some degree victims of Mr. Venizelos's and Mr. Lloyd George's original miscalculations at Paris."
Relief efforts
In 1917 a relief organization by the name of the
Contemporary accounts
German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, as well as the 1922 memorandum compiled by British diplomat
The accounts describe systematic massacres, rapes and burnings of Greek villages, and attribute intent to Ottoman officials, including the Ottoman Prime Minister
Additionally,
US Consul-General George Horton, whose account has been criticised by scholars as anti-Turkish,[113][114][115] claimed, "One of the cleverest statements circulated by the Turkish propagandists is to the effect that the massacred Christians were as bad as their executioners, that it was '50–50'." On this issue he comments: "Had the Greeks, after the massacres in the Pontus and at Smyrna, massacred all the Turks in Greece, the record would have been 50–50—almost." As an eye-witness, he also praises Greeks for their "conduct ... toward the thousands of Turks residing in Greece, while the ferocious massacres were going on", which, according to his opinion, was "one of the most inspiring and beautiful chapters in all that country's history".[116][117]
Even the US admiral Arthur L. Bristol, who advised foreign journalists to avoid publishing about the persecution of the Greeks, in his conversations and letters stated the harsh conditions for Armenians and Greeks. He even tried to stop the deportation of the Greeks from Samsun.[118]
Casualties
According to Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi in The Thirty-Year Genocide, as a result of Ottoman and Turkish state policy, "several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks had died. Either they were murdered outright or were the intentional victims of hunger, disease, and exposure."[120]
For the whole of the period between 1914 and 1922 and for the whole of Anatolia, there are academic estimates of death toll ranging from 289,000 to 750,000. The figure of 750,000 is suggested by political scientist
Some contemporary sources claimed different death tolls. The Greek government collected figures together with the Patriarchate to claim that a total of one million people were massacred.
According to various sources the Greek death toll in the Pontus region of Anatolia ranges from 300,000 to 360,000.[127] Merrill D. Peterson cites the death toll of 360,000 for the Greeks of Pontus.[128] According to George K. Valavanis, "The loss of human life among the Pontian Greeks, since the Great War (World War I) until March 1924, can be estimated at 353,000, as a result of murders, hangings, and from punishment, disease, and other hardships."[129] Valavanis derived this figure from the 1922 record of the Central Pontian Council in Athens based on the Black Book of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, to which he adds "50,000 new martyrs", which "came to be included in the register by spring 1924".[130]
Aftermath
Article 142 of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, prepared after the first World War, called the wartime Turkish regime "terrorist" and contained provisions "to repair so far as possible the wrongs inflicted on individuals in the course of the massacres perpetrated in Turkey during the war."[131] The Treaty of Sèvres was never ratified by the Turkish government and ultimately was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne. That treaty was accompanied by a "Declaration of Amnesty", without containing any provision in respect to punishment of war crimes.[132]
In 1923, a population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulted in a near-complete ending of the Greek ethnic presence in Turkey and a similar ending of the Turkish ethnic presence in much of Greece. According to the Greek census of 1928, 1,104,216 Ottoman Greeks had reached Greece.[133] It is impossible to know exactly how many Greek inhabitants of Turkey died between 1914 and 1923, and how many ethnic Greeks of Anatolia were expelled to Greece or fled to the Soviet Union.[134] Some of the survivors and expelled took refuge in the neighboring Russian Empire (later, Soviet Union).[citation needed] Similar plans for a population exchange had been negotiated earlier, in 1913–1914, between Ottoman and Greek officials during the first stage of the Greek genocide but had been interrupted by the onset of World War I.[18][135]
In December 1924,
In 1955, the
Genocide recognition
Terminology
The word genocide was coined in the early 1940s, the era of the
Genocide is no new phenomenon, nor has it been utterly ignored in the past. ... The massacres of Greeks and Armenians by the Turks prompted diplomatic action without punishment. If Professor Lemkin has his way genocide will be established as an international crime...[140]
The 1948
Academic discussion
In December 2007 the
Manus Midlarsky notes a disjunction between statements of genocidal intent against the Greeks by Ottoman officials and their actions, pointing to the containment of massacres in selected "sensitive" areas and the large numbers of Greek survivors at the end of the war. Because of cultural and political ties of the Ottoman Greeks with European powers, Midlarsky argues, genocide was "not a viable option for the Ottomans in their case."[44] Taner Akçam refers to contemporary accounts noting the difference in government treatment of Ottoman Greeks and Armenians during WW I and concludes that "despite the increasingly severe wartime policies, in particular for the period between late 1916 and the first months of 1917, the government's treatment of the Greeks – although comparable in some ways to the measures against the Armenians – differed in scope, intent, and motivation."[147]
Some historians, including Boris Barth , Michael Schwartz , and Andrekos Varnava argue that the persecution of Greeks was ethnic cleansing or deportation, but not genocide.[148][10] This is also a position of some Greek mainstream historians;[149][150] according to Aristide Caratzas this is due to a number of factors, "which range from governmental reticence to criticize Turkey to spilling over into the academic world, to ideological currents promoting a diffuse internationalism cultivated by a network of NGOs, often supported by western governments and western interests".[150] Others, such as Dominik J. Schaller and Jürgen Zimmerer, argue that the "genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks" was "obvious".[6] The historians Samuel Totten and Paul R. Bartrop, who specialize on the history of genocides, also call it a genocide; so is Alexander Kitroeff.[150][151] Another scholar who considers it a genocide is Hannibal Travis; he also adds that the widespread attacks by the successive governments of Turkey, on the homes, places of worship, and heritage of minority communities since the 1930s, constitute cultural genocide as well.[142]
Dror Ze'evi and Benny Morris, authors of The Thirty-Year Genocide, write that:[152]
... the story of what happened in Turkey is much broader and deeper [than just the Armenian genocide]. It goes deeper, because it covers not just what occurred during World War I, but a series of giant ethno-religious massacres that lasted from the 1890s through the 1920s and beyond. It is broader, because it was not only Armenians who were persecuted and killed. Along with hundreds of thousands of Armenians ... a similar number of Greeks and Assyrians (or adherents of the Assyrian or Syriac churches) were slaughtered ... By our estimate, over the course of the 30-year period, between 1.5 and 2.5 million Christians from the three religious groups were either murdered or intentionally starved to death, or allowed to die of disease, and millions more were expelled from Turkey and lost everything. In addition, tens of thousands of Christians were forced to convert to Islam, and many thousands of Christian women and girls were raped, either by their Muslim neighbors or by members of the security forces. The Turks even opened markets where Christian girls were sold as sex slaves. These atrocities were committed by three very different, successive regimes: Sultan Abdülhamid II's authoritarian-Islamist regime; the government of the Committee of Union and Progress (the Young Turks) during World War I, under the leadership of Talaat Pasha and Enver Pasha; and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's post-war secular nationalist regime.[excessive quote]
Political recognition
Following an initiative of MPs of the so-called "patriotic" wing of the ruling
In the late 2000s the Communist Party of Greece adopted the term "Genocide of the Pontic (Greeks)" (Γενοκτονία Ποντίων) in its official newspaper Rizospastis and participates in memorial events.[158][159][160]
The
In response to the 1998 law, the Turkish government released a statement which claimed that describing the events as genocide was "without any historical basis". "We condemn and protest this resolution" a Turkish Foreign Ministry statement said. "With this resolution the Greek Parliament, which in fact has to apologize to the Turkish people for the large-scale destruction and massacres Greece perpetrated in Anatolia, not only sustains the traditional Greek policy of distorting history, but it also displays that the expansionist Greek mentality is still alive," the statement added.[161]
On 11 March 2010,
On 14 May 2013, the government of New South Wales was submitted a genocide recognition motion by Fred Nile of the Christian Democratic Party, which was later passed making it the fourth political entity to recognise the genocide.[163]
In March 2015, the
In April 2015, the States General of the Netherlands and the Austrian Parliament passed resolutions recognizing the Greek and Assyrian genocides.[165][166]
Reasons for limited recognition
The United Nations, the European Parliament, and the Council of Europe have not made any related statements. According to Constantine Fotiadis, professor of Modern Greek History at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, some of the reasons for the lack of wider recognition and delay in seeking acknowledgement of these events are as follows:[167][168]
- In contrast to the Treaty of Sèvres, the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 dealt with these events by making no reference or mention, and thus sealed the end of the Asia Minor Catastrophe.
- A subsequent peace treaty (Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship in June 1930) between Greece and Turkey. Greece made several concessions to settle all open issues between the two countries in return for peace in the region.
- The Military juntaand the political turmoil in Greece that followed, forced Greece to focus on its survival and other problems rather than seek recognition of these events.
- The political environment of the Cold War, in which Turkey and Greece were supposed to be allies – facing one common Communist enemy – not adversaries or competitors.
In his book With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide, Colin Tatz argues that Turkey denies the genocide so as not to jeopardize "its ninety-five-year-old dream of becoming the beacon of democracy in the Near East".[169]
In their book Negotiating the Sacred: Blasphemy and Sacrilege in a Multicultural Society, Elizabeth Burns Coleman and Kevin White present a list of reasons explaining Turkey's inability to admit the genocides committed by the Young Turks, writing:[170]
Turkish denialism of the genocide of 1.5 million Armenians is official, riven, driven, constant, rampant, and increasing each year since the events of 1915 to 1922. It is state-funded, with special departments and units in overseas missions whose sole purpose is to dilute, counter, minimise, trivialise and relativise every reference to the events which encompassed a genocide of Armenians, Pontian Greeks and Assyrian Christians in Asia Minor.
They propose the following reasons for the denial of the genocides by Turkey:[170]
- A suppression of guilt and shame that a warrior nation, a "beacon of democracy" as it saw itself in 1908 (and since), slaughtered several ethnic populations. Democracies, it is said, don't commit genocide; ergo, Turkey couldn't and didn't do so.
- A cultural and social ethos of honour, a compelling and compulsive need to remove any blots on the national escutcheon.
- A chronic fear that admission will lead to massive claims for reparation and restitution.
- To overcome fears of social fragmentation in a society that is still very much a state in transition.
- A "logical" belief that because the genocide was committed with impunity, so denial will also meet with neither opposition nor obloquy.
- An inner knowledge that the juggernaut denial industry has a momentum of its own and can't be stopped even if they wanted it to stop.
Genocide as a model for future crimes
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. (September 2022) |
According to Stefan Ihrig, Kemal's "model" remained active for the
Hitler's National Socialist Party, from its first steps, had used the methods of the Turkish state as a standard to draw inspiration from. The official Nazi newspaper
A Nazi publication of 1925 exalted the new Turkish state for its "cleansing" policy, which "threw the Greek element to the sea". The majority of writers of the Third Reich stressed that the double genocide (against Greeks and Armenians) was a prerequisite for the success of the new Turkey, the NSDAP claimed: "Only through the annihilation of the Greek and the Armenian tribes in Anatolia was the creation of a Turkish national state and the formation of an unflawed Turkish body of society within one state possible."[178]
Memorials
Memorials commemorating the plight of Ottoman Greeks have been erected throughout Greece, as well as in a number of other countries including Australia, Canada, Germany, Sweden, and the United States.[179][180]
Literature
The Greek genocide is remembered in a number of modern works.
- Not Even My Name by Thea Halo is the story of the survival, at age ten, of her mother Sano (Themia) Halo (original name Euthemia "Themia" Barytimidou, Pontic Greek: Ευθυμία Βαρυτιμίδου),[181][182] along the death march during the Greek genocide that annihilated her family. The title refers to Themia being renamed to Sano by an Arabic-speaking family who could not pronounce her Greek name, after they took her in as a servant during the Greek genocide.[183]
- Amele Taburlari or Amele Taburu) only 23 survived. The title refers to the number assigned to Elias by the Turkish army during the death march. The book was made into a movie called 1922 by Nikos Koundouros in 1978, but was banned in Greece until 1982 because of pressure from the Turkish Foreign Ministry who complained that the film would ruin Greek-Turkish relations.[184][unreliable source?]
See also
- Armenian genocide
- Sayfo
- 1915 genocide in Diyarbekir
- Burning of Smyrna
- Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)
- Greek refugees
- Human rights in Turkey
- Istanbul pogrom
- İzmit massacres
- Outline and timeline of the Greek genocide
- Republic of Pontus
- Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation
- Turkish war crimes
References
Citations
- ^ S2CID 154870709.
The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks
- ^ ISBN 978-1-78533-326-2.
Activists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths, from the cautious estimates between 300,000 to 700,000...
- ^ a b Jones 2010, p. 166: "An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous 'population exchanges' that set the seal on a heavily 'Turkified' state."
- ^ AINA (2015a); AINA (2015b); Armenpress (2015)
- ^ a b c "Καθιέρωση της 14 Σεπτεμβρίου ως ημέρας εθνικής μνήμης της Γενοκτονίας των Ελλήνων της Μικράς Ασίας απο το Τουρκικό Κράτος". Act No. 2645/98 of 13 October 1998 (in Greek). Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016..
- ^ S2CID 71515470.
- ^ a b c d "Resolution" (PDF). IAGS. 16 December 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2008. Retrieved 13 March 2015..
- ^ Γενοκτονία ή Εθνοκάθαρση τελικά (greek). On Alert (4 Νοεμβρίου 2015).
- ^ Ανδριανόπουλος, Ανδρέας. Γενοκτονία και Εθνοκάθαρση (greek). News24/7 (5 Νοεμβρίου 2015).
- ^ ISSN 1911-0359.
- ISBN 978-3-486-70425-9.
- ISBN 978-3-40652-865-1.
- ^ Jones 2010a, p. 163.
- ISBN 978-0-19-067789-3 – via Google Books.
- OCLC 893607294 – via Google Books.
- ^ Jones 2006, pp. 154–55.
- ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
- ^ OCLC 250711524.
The total number of Christians who fled to Greece was probably in the region of 1.2 million with the main wave occurring in 1922 before the signing of the convention. According to the official records of the Mixed Commission set up to monitor the movements, the "Greeks' who were transferred after 1923 numbered 189,916 and the number of Muslims expelled to Turkey was 355,635 [Ladas I932, 438–439; but using the same source Eddy 1931, 201 states that the post-1923 exchange involved 192,356 Greeks from Turkey and 354,647 Muslims from Greece].
- ^ Jones 2010, pp. 171–2: 'A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and Assyrian/Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:...'
- ^ "Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament", News (full text), AM, 24 September 2023, containing both the IAGS and the Swedish resolutions.
- ISBN 9781593333010.
- ^ a b "Η 19η Μαΐου, καθιερώνεται ως ημέρα μνήμης της γενοκτονίας των Ελλήνων του Πόντου". Act No. 2193/94 of 11 March 1994 (in Greek). Hellenic Parliament. Archived from the original on 25 February 2016..
- ^ a b Tsolakidou, Stella (18 May 2013). "May 19, Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day". Greek Reporter. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
- ^ a b "Government Spokesman's written statement on the Greek Pontiac Genocide, yesterday". Republic of Cyprus Press and Information Office. Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
- ^ "Text - H.Res.296 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): Affirming the United States record on the Armenian Genocide". 29 October 2019.
- ^ "Text - S.Res.150 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): A resolution expressing the sense of the Senate that it is the policy of the United States to commemorate the Armenian Genocide through official recognition and remembrance". 12 December 2019.
- ^ "House Passes Resolution Recognizing Armenian Genocide". The New York Times. 29 October 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
- ^ "US House says Armenian mass killing was genocide". BBC News. 30 October 2019.
- ^ "Sweden to recognize Armenian genocide". thelocal.se. 2010. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
- ^ "Sweden: Parliament Approves Resolution on Armenian Genocide". loc.gov. 2010. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
- ^ Armenpress 2015.
- ^ "Dutch Parliament Recognizes Greek, Assyrian and Armenian Genocide". greekreporter.com. 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
- ^ AINA 2015a.
- ^ "German Bundestag recognizes the Armenian Genocide". armradio.am. 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
- ^ "Bundestag calls Turkish crimes against Armenians genocide". b92.net. 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
- ^ AINA 2015b.
- ^ "Austrian Parliament Recognizes Armenian Genocide". MassisPost. 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
- ^ "Czech Parliament Approves Armenian Genocide Resolution". The Armenian Weekly. 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
- ^ "Czech Republic recognizes the Armenian Genocide". Armenpress. 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
- ^ "Czech Republic Parliament recognizes the Armenian Genocide". ArmRadio. 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
- ^ Bloxham 2005, p. 150.
- ^ Levene 1998.
- ^ Ferguson 2006, p. 180.
- ^ a b Midlarsky 2005, pp. 342–343.
- ^ Dawkins, R. M. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1916 (online version)
- ^ Kelder, Jorrit (2004–2005). "The Chariots of Ahhiyawa". Dacia, Revue d'Archéologie et d'Histoire Ancienne (48–49): 151–160.
The Madduwatta text represents the first textual evidence for Greek incursions on the Anatolian mainland... Mycenaeans settled there already during LH IIB (around 1450 BC; Niemeier, 1998, 142).
- ISBN 978-0-521-43961-9.
- ^ a b c d Travis 2009, p. 637.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
- ISBN 978-1-139-50178-1. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-19-924506-2.
- ISBN 978-0-691-14617-1.
The Ottoman state never sought to impose Turkish on subject peoples…Some ethno-religious groups, when outnumbered by Turks, did accept Turkish vernacular through a gradual process of acculturation. While the Greeks of the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace, and west Anatolian littoral continued to speak and write in Greek, The Greeks of Cappadocia (Karaman) spoke Turkish and wrote Turkish in Greek script. Similarly, a large majority of Armenians in the empire adopted Turkish as their vernacular and wrote Turkish in Armenian characters, all efforts to the contrary by the Mkhitarist order notwithstanding. The first novels published in the Ottoman Empire in the mid-nineteenth century were by Armenians and Cappadocian Greeks; they wrote them in Turkish, using the Armenian and Greek alphabets.
- ^
- Alexandris 1999, p. 54
- Κωστόπουλος 2007, pp. 170–171
- Karpat 1985, p. [page needed]
- Paris Peace conference.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 68 f.
- ^ Akçam 2012, p. 71.
- ^ a b Akçam 2012, pp. 80–82.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 84 f.
- ISBN 978-0691159560.
- ISBN 978-1789204506.
- ^ Akçam 2012, p. 84.
- ^ Turks Slay 100 Greeks. The New York Times, 17 June 1914.
- ^ Matthias Bjørnlund. "The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification". In Schaller & Zimmerer (2009), pp. 34 ff.
- ^ a b A Multidimensional Analysis of the Events in Eski Foça (Παλαιά Φώκαια) on the period of Summer 1914-Emre Erol
- ^ Matthias Bjørnlund. "The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification". In Schaller & Zimmerer (2009), pp. 41 ff.
- ^ Hull 2005, p. 273.
- ^ King 1922, p. 437.
- ^ Akçam 2012, p. 65.
- ^ a b Akçam 2012, pp. 65–7.
- The Council on Foreign Relations. July 1926.
- ^ Akçam 2012, p. 69.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 94–96.
- ^ Speros Vryonis (2000). The Great Catastrophes: Asia Minor/Smyrna--September 1922; Constantinople-September 6–7, 1955. Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle.
In effect this set off the beginning of the persecution of the Greek communities of Asia Minor, an event gradually spread from the Aegean Turkish coast, inland to Pontos and to Cappadocia and Cilicia in the south
- Maryborough Chronicle, Wide Bay and Burnett Advertiser. No. 12, 956. Queensland, Australia. 25 November 1914. p. 4. Retrieved 15 February 2021 – via National Library of Australia.
- ^ Akçam 2012, p. 97.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 99 f.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 100 f.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 102–4.
- ^ Avedian 2009, p. 40.
- ^ a b c d e f Rendel 1922.
- ^ Morgenthau 1919, p. 326.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 105 f.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 109 f.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 111.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 111 f.
- ^ Akçam 2004, p. 146.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 112.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 113.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 113–116.
- ^ Akçam 2012, pp. 116–119.
- ^ Avedian 2009, p. 47.
- ^ Midlarsky 2005, pp. 342–343: "Many (Greeks), however, were massacred by the Turks, especially at Smyrna (today's İzmir) as the Greek army withdrew at the end of their headlong retreat from central Anatolia at the end of the Greco-Turkish War. Especially poorly treated were the Pontic Greeks in eastern Anatolia on the Black Sea. In 1920, as the Greek army advanced, many were deported to the Mesopotamian desert as had been the Armenians before them. Nevertheless, approximately 1,200,000 Ottoman Greek refugees arrived in Greece at the end of the war. When one adds to the total the Greeks of Constantinople who, by agreement, were not forced to flee, then the total number comes closer to the 1,500,000 Greeks in Anatolia and Thrace. Here, a strong distinction between intention and action is found. According to the Austrian consul at Amisos, Kwiatkowski, in his November 30, 1916, report to foreign minister Baron Burian: 'on 26 November Rafet Bey told me: "we must finish off the Greeks as we did with the Armenians..." on 28 November Rafet Bey told me: "today I sent squads to the interior to kill every Greek on sight." I fear for the elimination of the entire Greek population and a repeat of what occurred last year.' Or according to a January 31, 1917, report by Chancellor Hollweg of Austria: the indications are that the Turks plan to eliminate the Greek element as enemies of the state, as they did earlier with the Armenians. The strategy implemented by the Turks is of displacing people to the interior without taking measures for their survival by exposing them to death, hunger, and illness. The abandoned homes are then looted and burnt or destroyed. Whatever was done to the Armenians is being repeated with the Greeks. Massacres most likely did take place at Amisos and other villages in Pontus. Yet given the large number of surviving Greeks, especially relative to the small number of Armenian survivors, the massacres apparently were restricted to Pontus, Smyrna, and selected other 'sensitive' regions."
- ^ Agtzidis 1992, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Georganopoulos 2010, pp. 227–232.
- ^ Georganopoulos 2010, pp. 245–247.
- ISBN 9788866557418.
- ISBN 9780199547043.
- ^ a b Hofmann, Tessa. "Yalova/Nicomedia 1920/1921. Massacres and Inter- Ethnic Conflict in a Failing State". Institut für Diaspora- und Genozidforschung: 3–5. Retrieved 2 July 2016.
- ^ Akçam, Taner (1996). Armenien und der Völkermord: Die Istanbuler Prozesse und die Türkische Nationalbewegung. Hamburg: Hamburger Edition. p. 185.
- ^ Toynbee 1922, p. 270.
- ^ a b Rummel, R.J. (1997). "Chapter 5, Statistics of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, and Sources". Statistics of Democide. University of Hawai'i. Retrieved 4 October 2006.
- ^ Taner Akcam, A Shameful Act, p. 322
- ^ ISBN 978-1-56000-927-6.
- ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
- ^ Toynbee 1922, pp. 312–313.
- ^ Nikolaos Hlamides, "The Greek Relief Committee: America's Response to the Greek Genocide", Genocide Studies and Prevention 3, 3 (December 2008): 375–383.
- ^ a b "The Genocide and Its Aftermath". Archived from the original on 24 June 2009.
- ^ The New York Times Advanced search engine for article and headline archives (subscription necessary for viewing article content).[full citation needed]
- ^ Alexander Westwood and Darren O'Brien, Selected bylines and letters from The New York Times Archived 7 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2006
- ^ Kateb, Vahe Georges (2003). Australian Press Coverage of the Armenian Genocide 1915–1923, University of Wollongong, Graduate School of Journalism
- ^ "Morgenthau Calls for Check on Turks", The New York Times, p. 3, 5 September 1922
- ^ Morgenthau 1918, p. 201.
- S2CID 131159279. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
- ISBN 9780198032908.
- ^ Buzanski, Peter Michael (1960). Admiral Mark L. Bristol and Turkish-American Relations, 1919–1922. University of California, Berkeley. p. 176.
- ^ Horton 1926, p. 267.
- ^ Marketos, James L. (2006). "George Horton: An American Witness in Smyrna" (PDF). AHI World. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
- ISBN 978-1612510538.
- ^ Naimark, Norman M. Fires of hatred: ethnic cleansing in twentieth-century Europe (2002), Harvard University Press, pp. 47–52.
- ISBN 978-0-674-91645-6.
- ^ Jones 2010, pp. 150–51: "By the beginning of the First World War, a majority of the region's ethnic Greeks still lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia ... The major populations of 'Anatolian Greeks' include those along the Aegean coast and in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus ... A 'Christian genocide' framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups targeted ... of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor – Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians – approximately 750,000 were massacred and 750,000 exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled 353,000."
- ^ Rummel, R.J. (1997). "Chapter 5, Statistics of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, and Sources". Statistics of Democide. University of Hawai'i. Table 5.1A, Table 5.1B, Table 10.2. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
"Not only did the Turks murder Armenians, but Greeks as well. Estimates of this are far fewer (lines 201 to 203), but we do have assessments of those deported (lines 193 to 197) from which to calculate the possible toll (line 198). The actual percentages from which I make this calculation reflect the relevant historical bits and pieces in the sources. Combining this calculation and the sum of the estimates (line 204) suggest a likely genocide of 84,000 Greeks."
"In the table I next list partial estimates (lines 367 to 374) for the genocide of the Greek. There is one calculation of Turkey's Anatolian (Asia Minor) Greek population deficit during 1912 to 1922, taking into account emigration and deportation from Turkey (line 378). Subtracting from this the WWI Greek genocide I calculated from previous totals (line 379), I get the range of post-WWI losses shown (line 380). This then provides an alternative to the sum of the specific mortality estimates (line 381). From these alternative ranges I calculated a final Greek genocide for this period in the usual way (line 382). Most probably, the Nationalists Turks murdered 264,000 Greeks;"
- ^ Hatzidimitriou 2005, p. 2.
- ^ Jones 2010, p. 150.
- ^ Bierstadt 1924, p. 67.
- ISBN 978-1-4668-3212-1.
- ^ Jones 2010, p. 166: "An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous 'population exchanges' that set the seal on a heavily 'Turkified' state."
- ^ Peterson 2004, p. 124.
- ^ Valavanis 1925, p. 24.
- ^ Fotiadis, Konstantinos (2015). The Genocide of the Pontian Greeks. Thessaloniki: K. & M. Antonis Stamoulis Publications. pp. 61–62.
- ^ "Treaty of Sevres, 1920". Retrieved 19 May 2016.
- ^ Bassiouni 1999, pp. 62–63.
- ISBN 978-0-19-927896-1.
- ^ Ascherson 1995, p. 185.
- ISBN 978-1-85065-899-3.
- ^ "Yarn of a Cargo of Human Bones". The New York Times. 23 December 1924.
- ^ de Zayas, Alfred (2007). "The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 2 (2/4). International Association of Genocide Scholars: 137–154.
- ^ Vryonis, Speros (2000). The great catastrophes: Asia Minor/Smyrna--September 1922; Constantinople—September 6&7, 1955 : a lecture. Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle. p. 5.
It is remarkable to what degree the Orthodox hierarchs and clergy shared the fate of the people and were martyred. According to statistics of the church, of the 459 bishops, metropolitans and clergy of the metropolitanate of Smyrna, some 347 were murdered in an atrocious manner.
- S2CID 72663247..
- ^ "Genocide", The New York Times, 26 August 1946
- ^ Hatzidimitriou 2005, p. 1.
- ^ a b Travis 2009, pp. 659–660.
- ISBN 9780674023680.
- ^ "International Genocide Scholars Association officially recognises Assyrian, Greek Genocides" (PDF) (Press release). IAGS. 16 December 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2012.
- ^ "International Genocide Scholars Association officially recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides". Assyrian International News Agency. 15 December 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
- ^ Erik Sjöberg, Battlefields of Memory: The Macedonian Conflict and Greek Historical Culture, Umeå Studies in History and Education 6 (Umeå University|series, 2011), p. 170
- ^ Akçam 2012, p. 123.
- S2CID 152834321.
- ISBN 9781785333262.
Meanwhile, despite the predictable Turkish efforts to discredit it, Greek mainstream historians, educators and influential commentators oppose this claim as founded upon "ahistorical and anti-scientific opinion".
- ^ doi:10.12681/hr.338.
There is also an institutional split, with those disputing the usefulness of the term genocide belonging to the mainstream of the historical profession in Greece. As its title suggests, this volume falls clearly on the side of those who wish to affirm that genocide was committed against the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire between 1912 and 1922. The publisher, Aristide Caratzas, summarizes the purpose of this book in a prefatory note: "The efforts to eliminate the Greeks, the Armenians and the Assyrians, peoples whose biological presence in that geographic space goes back millennia before recorded history, are integral to the process that led to the creation of what became the modern Turkish Republic. The predatory methods used, and indeed what may be called a policy of effective physical elimination of populations, as well as of the cultural traces of their presence in areas they inhabited, bespeak of planning at the highest levels of government and its systematic implementation." Further on he adds, "Greek scholars, with some significant exceptions, have been less active in researching the subject of the violent elimination of the Greek presence in Asia Minor and eastern Thrace, which spanned three millennia. The avoidance of the subject of the genocide by many mainline academics in Greece is a convergence of factors, which range from governmental reticence to criticize Turkey to spilling over into the academic world, to ideological currents promoting a diffuse internationalism cultivated by a network of NGOs, often supported by western governments and western interests." Then he concludes: "This volume represents a kind of scholarly opening statement to an international audience on the subject of the extermination or expulsion of Ottoman Greeks, as part of the genocide of the Christians of Asia Minor." (pp. ix-x) Thus, this book has a dual purpose, to present information that highlights the extent of the massacres suffered by the Greeks, and to argue that the massacres qualify as a genocide and, also, to implicitly criticize those who do not agree with this perspective.
- ISBN 978-0-313-32967-8.
- ^ Ze'evi, Dror; Morris, Benny (4 November 2021). "Then Came the Chance the Turks Have Been Waiting For: To Get Rid of Christians Once and for All". Haaretz.
- ^ Κωστόπουλος 2007, pp. 266–267.
- ^ "Kilkisiou Bartholomeos on the resignation of former Minister G. Daskalakis". Ekklisia Online (in Greek). 16 July 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ Robert Fisk (13 February 2001). "Athens and Ankara at odds over genocide". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 1 July 2008.
- ^ Tsibiridou, Fotini (2009). "Writing about Turks and Powerful Others: Journalistic Heteroglossia in Western Thrace". In Theodossopoulos, Dimitrios (ed.). When Greeks Think About Turks: The View from Anthropology. Routledge. p. 134.
- ^ George Karabelias (2010). "Ardin.gr" Καταστροφή ή Γενοκτονία [Catastrophe or Genocide?]. Άρδην [Arden] (in Greek) (38–39).
Και εάν η Κυβέρνηση για λόγους πολιτικής σκοπιμότητας θα αποσύρει το Π.Δ., η Αριστερά θα αναλάβει, όπως πάντα, να προσφέρει τα ιδεολογικά όπλα του πολέμου. Ο Άγγελος Ελεφάντης θα γράψει στο ίδιο τεύχος των Νέων πως δεν υπάρχει κανένας λόγος να αναγορεύσομε την 14 Σεπτεμβρίου του 1922 ούτε καν σε ημέρα εθνικής μνήμης. [And while the Government for the sake of political expediency withdraws the Presidential Decree, the Left undertakes, as always, to offer the ideological weapons for this war. Angelos Elefantis writes in the same page of the NEA newspaper (Feb. 24, 2001) that there is no reason to proclaim the 14th of September of 1922 not even to a day of national memory.]
- ^ Pontic Genocide, Responsible is the imperialistic opportunism, 20 May 2009.
- ^ Day in Memory of the Pontic Greeks Genocide. The poor in the center of powerful confrontations. 20 May 2010.
- ^ rizospastis.gr – Synchroni Epochi (20 May 2008). ""Οι λαοί πρέπει να θυμούνται" – ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΗ – ΡΙΖΟΣΠΑΣΤΗΣ". ΡΙΖΟΣΠΑΣΤΗΣ. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
- ^ Turkey Denounces Greek 'Genocide' Resolution, Office of the Prime Minister, Directorate General of Press and Information, 30 September 1998, archived from the original on 29 June 2008, retrieved 5 February 2007.
- Riksdag. 11 March 2010. Archived from the originalon 9 July 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
- ^ "Fred Nile: Genocide motion not against modern State of Turkey". PanARMENIAN.Net. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
- ^ "Adoption of declaration to certify Armenia recognizes Greek and Assyrian genocides: Eduard Sharmanazov". Armenpress. 23 March 2015.
- ^ "Dutch Parliament Recognizes Greek, Assyrian and Armenian Genocide". Greek Reporter. 11 April 2015.
- ^ "Austrian Parliament Recognizes Armenian, Assyrian, Greek Genocide". Assyrian International News Agency. 22 April 2015.
- ^ Fotiadis 2004: As summarized by Theophanis Malkidis in his presentation of the 14th volume of Fodiadis' work on the Greek Genocide.
- ^ "Η γενοκτονία των Ελλήνων του Πόντου και η γενοκτονίας της μνήμης – Ιστορική αναδρομή και εκτιμήσεις". Έμβολος. 11 May 2016.
- ISBN 978-1-85984-550-9. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
Turkey, still struggling to achieve its ninety-five-year-old dream of becoming the beacon of democracy in the Near East, does everything possible to deny its genocide of the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontian Greeks.
- ^ ISBN 978-1920942472.
- ISBN 978-0-674-36837-8.
- ISBN 9780674368378. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
- S2CID 158405214.
- ^ Ihrig, 2014, p. 145: "Atatürk and the New Turkey were constant reference points for the Nazis as part of their own biography, as an example of the perfect Führer story, and as examples of völkisch "good practice" in a variety of aspects"
- ^ Ihrig, 2014, p. 207: "The vast discussion of the Turkish role model and the New Turkey in the Third Reich media and publications means that the Third Reich had, at least implicitly, continually highlighted the "benefits" of "ethnic cleansing" and genocide."
- ISBN 978-0-231-14973-0.
- ^ Ihrig, 2014, p. 71: "Just a few days later, on December 16, 1920, the very day the paper was bought by the NSDAP, the Völkischer Beobachter did a complete turnaround and admiringly called Atatürk's movement "the Turkish nationalists." Now that it had become the official Nazi party paper, its general interpretation was to change fundamentally. On January 1, 1921, it featured the headline "Heroic Turkey."21 Barely a month later the paper featured an article with the headline "Turkey— The Role Model" (or "The Pioneer," Der Vorkämpfer). The Völkischer Beobachter exclaimed: "Today the Turks are the most youthful nation. The German nation will one day have no other choice but to resort to Turkish methods as well."
- ^ Ihrig, 2014, p. 183–184: "The minority problem in Anatolia was solved in a very simple fashion... "Only through the annihilation of the Greek and the Armenian tribes in Anatolia was the creation of a Turkish national state and the formation of an unflawed Turkish body of society within one state possible."
- ^ "Memorials", Greek Genocide Memorials, archived from the original on 6 October 2013, retrieved 18 September 2008
- ^ Greek Genocide Monuments, archived from the original on 17 August 2019, retrieved 4 July 2016
- ^ "Συνέντευξη: Η Σάνο Χάλο, η "Γιαγιά των Ποντίων", μέσα από τα μάτια της Θία Χάλο".
- ^ "Obituary: Sano Themia Halo (1909–2014)". 4 May 2014.
- ^ "A Few Words in Greek Tell of a Homeland Lost", Chris Hedges, The New York Times, 17 September 2000, https://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/17/nyregion/a-few-words-in-greek-tell-of-a-homeland-lost.html
- ^ "The Number 31328: The Book of Slavery". Archived from the original on 24 September 2022.
Sources
- AINA (2015a). "Austrian Parliament Recognizes Armenian, Assyrian, Greek Genocide". aina.org. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
- AINA (2015b). "Dutch Parliament Recognizes Assyrian, Greek and Armenian Genocide". aina.org. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
- Armenpress (2015). "Adoption of declaration to certify that Armenia recognizes Greek and Assyrian genocide: Eduard Sharmazanov". Armenpress. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
Notes
Bibliography
Contemporary accounts
- Horton, George (1926), The Blight of Asia, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill
- King, William C (1922), Complete History of the World War: Visualizing the Great Conflict in all Theaters of Action 1914–1918, US: The History Associates, archived from the originalon 1 August 2012.
- Morgenthau, Henry sr (1918), Ambassador Morgenthau's Story (PDF), Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co, archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2013, retrieved 13 September 2006.
- ——— (1919) [1918], Ambassador Morgenthau's Story, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co.
- Patriarchate of Constantinople (1919), Persecution of the Greeks in Turkey, Istanbul, Turkey: Greek Patriarchate, archived from the original on 21 November 2017, retrieved 3 August 2020 Alt URL
- Rendel, GW (20 March 1922), Memorandum by Mr. Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice (memorandum), British Foreign Office, archived from the original on 16 April 2022, retrieved 26 November 2017.
- Toynbee, Arnold J (1922), The Western question in Greece and Turkey: a study in the contact of civilisations, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
- Valavanis, G. K. (1925), Σύγχρονος Γενική Ιστορία του Πόντου [Contemporary General History of Pontus] (in Greek), Athens: Pamprosfygiki, archived from the original on 8 November 2015.
Secondary sources
- Agtzidis, Vlasis (1992). "Το κίνημα ανεξαρτησίας του Πόντου και οι αυτόνομες Ελληνικές περιοχές στη Σοβιετική Ένωση του μεσοπολέμου" [The movement for the independence of Pontus and the autonomous Greek regions in the Soviet Union during the interwar period]. Bulletin of the Asia Minor Studies Center (in Greek). 9 (1): 157–196. .
- Akçam, Taner (2006). A Shameful Act.
- The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton/Oxford: Princeton University Press.
- Georganopoulos, Evripidis (2010). "Η προσπάθεια σύστασης ελληνικής μεραρχίας Καυκάσου το 1917 και οι λόγοι της αποτυχίας της" [The attempt to raise the Greek Caucasus Division and the reasons for its failure] (PDF). 1st Panhellenic History Congress (in Greek). 1 (1): 227–251. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
- Alexandris, Alexis (1999). "The Greek census of Anatolia and Thrace (1910–1912): a contribution to Ottoman Historical Demography". In Gondicas, Dimitri; Issawi, Charles (eds.). Ottoman Greeks in the age of nationalism: Politics, Economy and Society in the Nineteenth Century. Princeton, N.J.: Darwin. pp. 45–76.
- ISBN 0-8090-3043-8.
- Avedian, Vahagn (2009), The Armenian Genocide 1915: From a Neutral Small State's Perspective: Sweden (PDF) (unpublished master thesis paper), Uppsala University.
- Bassiouni, M. Cherif (1999), Crimes Against Humanity in International Criminal Law, The Hague: Kluwer.
- Bierstadt, Edward Hale (1924), The Great Betrayal; A Survey of the Near East Problem, New York: RM McBride & Co.
- Bloxham, Donald (2005), The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 978-1-59420-100-4.
- Fotiadis, Constantinos Emm (2004), The Genocide of the Pontus Greeks by the Turks, Volumes 13, 14, Thessaloniki: Herodotus, ISBN 978-6180012729.
- Hatzidimitriou, Constantine G. (2005). American Accounts Documenting the Destruction of Smyrna by the Kemalist Turkish Forces: September 1922. New Rochelle, NY: Caratzas.
- Hulse, Carl (26 October 2007), "U.S. and Turkey Thwart Armenian Genocide Bill", The New York Times.
- Hull, Isabel V (2005), Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
- Jones, Adam (2006), Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, Routledge.
- ——— (2010) [2006], Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-48618-7.
- ——— (2010a) [2006]. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (revised ed.). London: Routledge. OCLC 672333335.
- Karpat, Kemal (1985). Ottoman Population, 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics. Madison: Madison University Press.
- Κωστόπουλος, Τάσος (2007). Πόλεμος και Εθνοκάθαρση: Η ξεχασμένη πλευρά μιας δεκαετούς εθνικής εξόρμησης (1912-1922). Athens: Βιβλιόραμα.
- Levene, Mark (Winter 1998), "Creating a Modern "Zone of Genocide": The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923", Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 12 (3): 393–433, doi:10.1093/hgs/12.3.393, archived from the originalon 3 October 2006.
- Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1.
- Naimark, Norman M. (2001). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.
- Peterson, Merrill D. (2004), Starving Armenians: America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1930 and After, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
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- Travis, Hannibal (2009), "The Cultural and Intellectual Property Interests of the Indigenous Peoples of Turkey and Iraq", Texas Weleyan Law Review, 15: 601–80, SSRN 1549804
Further reading
Books
- Akçam, Tanner (2004). From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide. Zed Books.
- Andreadis, George, Tamama: The Missing Girl of Pontos, Athens: Gordios, 1993.
- Barton, James L (1943), The Near East Relief, 1915–1930, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
- ———; Sarafian, Ara (December 1998), "Turkish Atrocities": Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917.
- Compton, Carl C. The Morning Cometh, New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1986.
- The Inter-Allied Commission of Inquiry into the Greek Occupation of Smyrna and Adjoining Territories, Documents of the Inter-Allied Commission of Inquiry into the Greek Occupation of Smyrna and Adjoining Territories (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018, retrieved 21 May 2012.
- Fotiadis, Konstantinos (2002–2004), Η γενοκτονία των Ελλήνων του Πόντου [The Genocide of the Greeks of Pontus] (in Greek), Thessaloniki: Herodotos. In fourteen volumes, including eleven volumes of materials (vols. 4–14).
- Karayinnides, Ioannis (1978), Ο γολγοθάς του Πόντου [The Golgotha of Pontus] (in Greek), Salonica: Panpontian Union.
- King, Charles (2005). The Black Sea: A History, Oxford: Oxford University Press
- Koromila, Marianna (2002). The Greeks and the Black Sea, Panorama Cultural Society.
- Morgenthau, Henry sr(1974) [1918], The Murder of a Nation, New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union of America.
- ——— (1929), I Was Sent to Athens, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Co.
- ——— (1930), An International Drama, London: Jarrolds.
- Hofmann, Tessa, ed. (2004), Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung der Christen im Osmanischen Reich 1912–1922 (in German), Münster: LIT, pp. 177–221, ISBN 978-3-8258-7823-8.
- Housepian Dobkin, Marjorie. Smyrna 1922: the Destruction of a City, New York, NY: Newmark Press, 1998.
- Lieberman, Benjamin (2006). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe, Ivan R. Dee.
- de Murat, Jean. The Great Extirpation of Hellenism and Christianity in Asia Minor: the historic and systematic deception of world opinion concerning the hideous Christianity's uprooting of 1922, Miami, FL (Athens, GR: A. Triantafillis) 1999.
- Papadopoulos, Alexander. Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European War: on the basis of official documents, New York: Oxford University Press, American branch, 1919.
- Pavlides, Ioannis. Pages of History of Pontus and Asia Minor, Salonica, GR, 1980.
- Shaw, Stanford J; Shaw, Ezel Kural, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Cambridge University.
- Sjöberg, Erik. THE MAKING OF THE GREEK GENOCIDE Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe, ISBN 978-1-78533-325-5, 2016.
- Shenk, Robert. "America's Black Sea Fleet - The U.S. Navy Amid War and Revolution,1919-1923", Naval Institute Press, Annapolis Maryland, 2012
- Totten, Samuel; Jacobs, Steven L (2002). Pioneers of Genocide Studies (Clt). New Brunswick, ISBN 978-0-7658-0151-7.
- Tsirkinidis, Harry. At last we uprooted them... The Genocide of Greeks of Pontos, Thrace, and Asia Minor, through the French archives, Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros, 1999.
- Ward, Mark H. The Deportations in Asia Minor 1921–1922, London: Anglo-Hellenic League, 1922.
Articles
- Bjornlund, Matthias (March 2008). "The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 41–58. S2CID 72975930.
- Hlamides, Nikolaos (December 2008). "The Greek Relief Committee: America's Response to the Greek Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 3 (3): 375–183. S2CID 146310206. Archived from the originalon 3 January 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2020.
- Klapsis, Antonis (2014). "Violent Uprooting and Forced Migration: A Demographic Analysis of the Greek Populations of Asia Minor, Pontus and Eastern Thrace". Middle Eastern Studies. 50 (4): 622–639. S2CID 145325597.
- Mourelos, Yannis (1985). "The 1914 Persecutions and the first Attempt at an Exchange of Minorities between Greece and Turkey". Balkan Studies. 26 (2): 389–413.
- Vryonis, Speros (2007). "Greek Labor Battalions in Asia Minor". In Hovannisian, Richard (ed.). The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. pp. 275–290.
- Taner, Akcam (7 November 2009). The Greek 'Deportations' and Massacres of 1913–1914, A Trial Run for the Armenian Genocide. The Academic Conference on the Asia Minor Catastrophe. Rosemont, IL.
- Sait, Çetinoğlu (17–19 September 2010). The Pontus Independence Movement and the Greek Genocide. Three Genocides, One Strategy. Athens. Archived from the original on 9 March 2017.
External links
- Bibliography at Greek Genocide Resource Center
- "Massacre of Greeks Charged to the Turks",The Atlanta Constitution. 17 June 1914.
- "Reports Massacres of Greeks in Pontus; Central Council Says They Attend Execution of Prominent Natives for Alleged Rebellion." The New York Times. Sunday 6 November 1921.