Greeks

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)
For other uses, see Greeks (disambiguation).
"Grecian" redirects here. For other uses, see Grecian (disambiguation).

Greeks
Hellenes
Έλληνες
Total population
c. 14–17 million[1][2]
Regions with significant populations
 Greece 9,903,268[3][4]
(2011 census)
 Cyprus 659,115–721,000[5][6][7][8]
(2011 census)
 United States1,279,000–3,000,000a (2016 estimate)[9][10]
 Germany449,000b (2021 estimate)[11]
 Australia424,744 (2021 census)[12]
 United Kingdom290,000–345,000 (2011 estimate)[13]
 Canada271,405c (2016 census)[14]
 Albania200,000 (c. 1990 estimate)[15]
 New Zealandest. 2,478 to 10,000, possibly up to 50,000[16]
 South Africa138,000 (2011 estimate)[17]
 Italy110,000–200,000d (2013 estimate)[18][19][20]
 Egypt110,000[21][22]
 Chile100,000[23]
 Ukraine91,000 (2011 estimate)[24]
 Russia85,640 (2010 census)[25]
 Brazil50,000e[26]
 France35,000 (2013 estimate)[27]
 Belgium35,000 (2011 estimate)[28]
 Argentina20,000–30,000 (2013 estimate)[29]
 Netherlands28,856 (2021)[30][31]
 Bulgaria1,356 (2011 census)[32] up to 28,500 (estimate)[33]
 Uruguay25,000–28,000 (2011 census)[34]
 Sweden24,736 (2012 census)[35]
 Georgia15,000 (2011 estimate)[36]
 Czech Republic12,000[37]
 Kazakhstan8,846 (2011 estimate)[38]
  Switzerland11,000 (2015 estimate)[39]
 Romania10,000 (2013 estimate)[40]
 Uzbekistan9,500 (2000 estimate)[41]
 Austria5,261[42]
 Hungary4,454 (2016 census)[43]
 Turkey4,000–49,143f[44][45]
Languages
Greek
Religion
Primarily Greek Orthodox Church
a Includes those of ancestral descent.
b Includes people with "cultural roots".
c Those whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is solely "Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada.
dApprox. 60,000 Griko people and 30,000 post WW2 migrants.
e "Including descendants".
f Including Greek Muslims.

The Greeks or Hellenes (

Egypt, and to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea. They also form a significant diaspora (omogenia), with many Greek communities established around the world.[46]

Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the

Thessalonica, Alexandria, Smyrna, and Constantinople
at various periods.

In recent times, most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state or in Cyprus. The

Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church.[50]

Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture, visual arts, exploration, theatre, literature, philosophy, ethics, politics, architecture, music, mathematics,[51] medicine, science, technology, commerce, cuisine and sports. The Greek language is the oldest recorded living language[52] and its vocabulary has been the basis of many languages, including English as well as international scientific nomenclature. Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world since the fourth century BC and the New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek.[53][54][55]

History

Further information: History of Greece
Proto-Greek area of settlement (2200/2100–1900 BC) suggested by Katona (2000), Sakelariou (2016, 1980, 1975) and Phylaktopoulos (1975)
Mycenaean funeral mask known as "Mask of Agamemnon", 16th century BC

The Greeks speak the Greek language, which forms its own unique branch within the Indo-European family of languages, the Hellenic.[48] They are part of a group of classical ethnicities, described by Anthony D. Smith as an "archetypal diaspora people".[56][57]

Origins

Further information:
List of Ancient Greek tribes, and Ancient Greek religion

The Proto-Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of the

Bronze Age collapse
.

Mycenaean

Main article: Mycenaean Greece

In c. 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the

syllabic script known as Linear B,[65] providing the first and oldest written evidence of Greek.[65][66] The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and, by the 15th century BC, had reached Rhodes, Crete, Cyprus and the shores of Asia Minor.[48][67]

Around 1200 BC, the

Mycenaean civilization, but this narrative has been abandoned in all contemporary research. It is likely that one of the factors which contributed to the Mycenaean palatial collapse was linked to raids by groups known in historiography as the "Sea Peoples" who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC.[69] The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages, but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible.[70]

The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.[71] The Homeric Epics (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time of Euhemerism that scholars began to question Homer's historicity.[70] As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g. Zeus, Poseidon and Hades) became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity.[72]

Classical

Main article: Classical Greece
The three great philosophers of the classical era: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC.[73] According to some scholars, the foundational event was the Olympic Games in 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.[46] The works of Homer (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) and Hesiod (i.e. Theogony) were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology.[74] The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was established in this period.[75]

The classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 BC (some authors prefer to split this period into "Classical", from the end of the Greco-Persian Wars to the end of the Peloponnesian War, and "Fourth Century", up to the death of Alexander). It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.[76] The Classical period is also described as the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization, and its art, philosophy, architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture.

While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic genos,[77] their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greek city-states.[78] The Peloponnesian War, the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-states Athens and Sparta and their allies, left both greatly weakened.[79]

Hellenistic Age

Most of the feuding Greek city-states were, in some scholars' opinions, united by force under the banner of Philip's and Alexander the Great's Pan-Hellenic ideals, though others might generally opt, rather, for an explanation of "Macedonian conquest for the sake of conquest" or at least conquest for the sake of riches, glory and power and view the "ideal" as useful propaganda directed towards the city-states.[80]

In any case, Alexander's toppling of the

Roman times.[83] Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia.[84]

Hellenistic

Main articles: Hellenistic period and Hellenistic Greece
The Hellenistic realms c. 300 BC as divided by the Diadochi; the Μacedonian Kingdom of Cassander (green), the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), the areas controlled by Lysimachus (orange) and Epirus (red)
Cleopatra VII (Altes Museum, Berlin), the last ruler of a Hellenistic kingdom (apart from the Indo-Greek Kingdom
)

The

Egypt by Rome in 30 BC,[85]
although the Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades.

This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi.[87][88] Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.[89] An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian (non-Greek) peoples, which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms.[89] This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation.[89] Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.[90]

In the

Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, Greco-Buddhism was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to China.[91] Further east, the Greeks of Alexandria Eschate became known to the Chinese people as the Dayuan.[92]

Roman Empire

Further information:
Roman Greece and Greco-Roman world

Between 168 BC and 30 BC, the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome, and almost all of the world's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became

Greco-Roman
culture.

In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.

Saint Paul) were generally Greek-speaking,[96] though none were from Greece proper. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,[97] with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid-Byzantine 10th century AD.[98] The region of Tsakonia remained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to as Hellenes, in the sense of being pagan, by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society.[99]

While ethnic distinctions still existed in the Roman Empire, they became secondary to religious considerations, and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promote a robust Roman national identity.[100] From the early centuries of the Common Era, the Greeks self-identified as Romans (Greek: Ῥωμαῖοι Rhōmaîoi).[101] By that time, the name Hellenes denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century.[102]

Middle Ages

See also:
Byzantine empire, Byzantine Greece, Byzantine Greeks, Fourth Crusade, and Frankokratia
Scenes of marriage and family life in Constantinople
Emperor Basil II (11th century) is credited with reviving the Byzantine Empire.
Gemistos Plethon, one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era, a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe

During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified as Rhōmaîoi (Ῥωμαῖοι, "Romans", meaning

exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the Council of Florence, to present the Western viewpoint.[112][113] Additionally, among the Germanic and the Slavic peoples, the Rhōmaîoi were just called Greeks.[114][115]

There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporary Byzantine scholarship: The first considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century, where the average subject identified as Roman; a perennialist approach, which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation; while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre-modern national identity.[116] The Byzantine Greeks' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece.[117][118]

A distinct Greek identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the

George Gemistos Plethon,[122] who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past.[119] However, it was the combination of Orthodox Christianity with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.[119] In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire, prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".[123][124] These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles, but were continued by Byzantine intellectuals who participated in the Italian Renaissance.[125]

The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on

Caucasian Greeks).[126]

These Byzantine Greeks were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.[118][127][128] Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving the Italian Renaissance a major boost.[129][130] The Aristotelian philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.[131]

To the

first Slavic alphabet.[132]

Ottoman Empire

Main articles:
Phanariotes
Basilios Bessarion
(1395/1403–1472) played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance.

Following the

Greek Macedonia, both in Northern Greece, and of course was centred on the mainly Greek-populated, former Byzantine capital, Constantinople. As a direct consequence of this situation, Greek-speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment, as well as in the church. Added to this, in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army, navy, and state bureaucracy, having been levied as adolescents (along with especially Albanians and Serbs) into Ottoman service through the devshirme. Many Ottomans of Greek (or Albanian or Serb) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces, from Ottoman Egypt, to Ottomans occupied Yemen and Algeria
, frequently as provincial governors.

For those that remained under the

Armenian Highlands. Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin, with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families, one famous example being sultan Selim the Grim (r.  1517–1520), whose mother Gülbahar Hatun was a Pontic Greek.[136][137]

Adamantios Korais, leading figure of the Modern Greek Enlightenment

The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the

Eastern Orthodox
church.

Modern

See also: Modern Greek Enlightenment and Greek War of Independence

The movement of the Greek enlightenment, the Greek expression of the

Ottomans, and the restoration of the term "Hellene". Adamantios Korais
, probably the most important intellectual of the movement, advocated the use of the term "Hellene" (Έλληνας) or "Graikos" (Γραικός) in the place of Romiós, that was seen negatively by him.

The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and

Kingdom of Greece, a clause removed by 1840.[140] A century later, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, although most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1.5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.[b][141] The Greek genocide, in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea, contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek Asia Minor Campaign, was part of this process of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.[142]

Identity

The cover of Hermes o Logios, a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Vienna with major contribution to the Modern Greek Enlightenment

The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.[143] Herodotus gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating

  1. shared
    descent (ὅμαιμον, hómaimon, 'of the same blood')[144]
  2. shared language (ὁμόγλωσσον, homóglōsson, 'speaking the same tongue')[145]
  3. shared
    sacrifices (θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι, theôn hidrúmatá te koinà kaì thusíai, 'common foundations, common sacrifices to gods')[146][147]
  4. shared customs (ἤθεα ὁμότροπα, ḗthea homótropa, 'customs of like fashion').[148][149][150]

By Western standards, the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the

Last Emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.[154]

Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation-state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".

Diafotismos and the current conception of Hellenism.[119][133][157]

The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an

ethnos, defined by possessing Greek culture and having a Greek mother tongue, not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.[158] In ancient and medieval times and to some extent today the Greek term was genos, which also indicates a common ancestry.[159][160]

Names

Main articles: Achaeans (Homer) and Names of the Greeks
Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece, and adjacent "barbarian" lands

Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The term Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί) is one of the

Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from c. 1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names are Danaans (Δαναοί) and Argives (Ἀργεῖοι) while Panhellenes (Πανέλληνες) and Hellenes (Ἕλληνες) both appear only once in the Iliad;[161] all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity.[162][163] In the historical period, Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.[164]

Achilleus.[165] The Parian Chronicle says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (Γραικοί).[166] In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia, was the son of Pyrrha and Deucalion, the only survivors after the Great Deluge.[167] The Greek philosopher Aristotle names ancient Hellas as an area in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river, the location of the Great Deluge of Deucalion, a land occupied by the Selloi and the "Greeks" who later came to be known as "Hellenes".[168] In the Homeric tradition, the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus.[169]

In the

Pandora II, sister of Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes.[170] According to the Parian Chronicle, when Deucalion became king of Phthia, the Graikoi (Γραικοί) were named Hellenes.[166] Aristotle notes in his Meteorologica that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi.[168]

Etymology

The English names Greece and Greek are derived, via the Latin Graecia and Graecus, from the name of the Graeci (Γραικοί, Graikoí; singular Γραικός, Graikós), who were among the first ancient Greek tribes to settle southern Italy (the so-called "Magna Graecia"). The term is possibly derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ǵerh₂-, "to grow old",[171][172] more specifically from Graea (ancient city), said by Aristotle to be the oldest in Greece, and the source of colonists for the Naples area.[173]

Continuity

Byzantine Emperor
's clothes, by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life (between 1204 and 1453)

The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during the Greek Dark Ages from which written records are absent (11th- 8th cent. BC, though the Cypriot syllabary was in use during this period).[174] Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone.[174][175] Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.[46][176] Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.[177] During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such as Ionia and Constantinople experienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.[176] This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.[176] Throughout their history, the Greeks have retained their language and alphabet, certain values and cultural traditions, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion (the word barbarian was used by 12th-century historian Anna Komnene to describe non-Greek speakers),[178] a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio-political changes of the past two millennia.[176] In recent anthropological studies, both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio-genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups.[179][180] There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks.[181][182]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Greece and Demographics of Cyprus

Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the

Republic of Cyprus where they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).[185] Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories, as well as the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[186] About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens.[187]

Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by the British Empire. Waves of emigration followed the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.[188] After the ethnic cleansing of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,[189][190] there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.[188] Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.[188]

Around 1990, most Western estimates of the number of ethnic Greeks in Albania were around 200,000 but in the 1990s, a majority of them migrated to Greece.

Greek Diaspora (pre-19th century).[195]

Diaspora

Main article: Greek diaspora
Greek diaspora (20th century)

The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where census figures are available, they show around three million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus. Estimates provided by the

Toronto.[195] In 2010, the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that allowed members of the diaspora to vote in Greek elections;[197] this law was repealed in early 2014.[198]

Ancient

See also: Colonies in antiquity
Greek colonization in antiquity

In ancient times, the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially in

Middle East, India and in Egypt.[199] The Hellenistic period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa.[200] Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became the lingua franca rather than Latin.[108] The modern-day Griko community of southern Italy, numbering about 60,000,[19][20]
may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy.

Modern

Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918, National Geographic
Poet Constantine P. Cavafy, a native of Alexandria, Egypt

During and after the

Britain (London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.[202] Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the Greek Orthodox Church.[202]

As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to become shippers, financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of the Ralli or Vagliano Brothers.[203] With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across the Levant, North Africa, India and the USA.[203][204]

In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the

Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974.[205]

While official figures remain scarce, polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the

Greek financial crisis.[206] According to data published by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany in 2011, 23,800 Greeks emigrated to Germany, a significant increase over the previous year. By comparison, about 9,000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12,000 in 2010.[207][208]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Greece

Diafotismos is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.[119][133]

Language

Main articles: Greek language and Greek language question
Early Greek alphabet, c. 8th century BC
A Greek speaker

Most Greeks speak the

Cyrillic, and several other alphabets. The earliest Greek literary works are the Homeric epics, variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Notable scientific and mathematical works include Euclid's Elements, Ptolemy's Almagest, and others. The New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek.[214]

Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other

Dimotiki the official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.[216]

Romaniotes, and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English, Arvanitika/Albanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Macedonian Slavic, Russian and Turkish.[174][218]

Religion

Main articles:
Religion in ancient Greece and Greek Orthodox Church
Christ Pantocrator mosaic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul

Most Greeks are

Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism congregations.[220][221][222]

Greek-speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era. There are both Christian and Muslim Greek-speaking communities in Lebanon and Syria, while in the Pontus region of Turkey there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the population exchange because of their religious affiliation.[223]

Arts

Further information:
Ancient Greek theatre, Modern Greek theatre, Cinema of Greece, Modern Greek architecture, and Modern Greek literature
See also: Greco-Buddhist art
Renowned Greek soprano Maria Callas

Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.

Western artistic heritage. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.[224] Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world.[225] In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Indo-Greek and Greco-Buddhist art, whose influence reached as far as Japan.[226]

classical art and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.[227] Its influences can be traced from Venice in the West to Kazakhstan in the East.[227][228] In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations (i.e. Egypt, Persia, etc.) during various periods of its history.[229]

Notable modern Greek artists include the major

Cretan Renaissance poets Georgios Chortatzis and Vincenzos Cornaros, such as Gregorios Xenopoulos and Iakovos Kambanellis
.

Eleftherios Venizelos was the leading political figure of 20th century Greece.

Notable cinema or theatre actors include

Academy Award winner Katina Paxinou, Alexis Minotis, Dimitris Horn, Thanasis Veggos, Manos Katrakis and Irene Papas. Alekos Sakellarios, Karolos Koun, Vasilis Georgiadis, Kostas Gavras, Michael Cacoyannis, Giannis Dalianidis, Nikos Koundouros and Theo Angelopoulos
are among the most important directors.

Among the most significant modern-era architects are

George Candilis
.

Science

See also: Ancient Greek philosophy, Greek mathematics, Ancient Greek medicine, Byzantine science, Greek scholars in the Renaissance, and List of Greek inventions and discoveries
Aristarchus of Samos was the first known individual to propose a heliocentric system, in the 3rd century BC.

The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy, laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions, such as

philosophy and political science. The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and other centers of Greek learning, while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science.[230] Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education).[89] Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.[231] The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,[232] and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students, the world's first university as well.[231]

As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.

cDNA cloning technology); botanist Theodoros Orphanides; economist Xenophon Zolotas (held various senior posts in international organisations such as the IMF); Indologist Dimitrios Galanos; linguist Yiannis Psycharis (promoter of Demotic Greek); historians Constantine Paparrigopoulos (founder of modern Greek historiography) and Helene Glykatzi Ahrweiler (excelled in Byzantine studies); and political scientists Nicos Poulantzas (a leading Structural Marxist) and Cornelius Castoriadis
(philosopher of history and ontologist, social critic, economist, psychoanalyst).

Significant engineers and automobile designers include Nikolas Tombazis, Alec Issigonis and Andreas Zapatinas.

Symbols

See also: Flag of Greece
The national flag of Greece is commonly used as a symbol for Greeks worldwide.
Palaiologoi, the last dynasty of the Byzantine Empire
.

The most widely used symbol is the

Eleftheria i Thanatos (Freedom or Death), which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence.[234] The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents Greek Orthodoxy. The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots, although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority (see flag of Cyprus).[235]

The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a

national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.[236]

Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the

Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.[238]

Politics

See also:
Politics in Greece

Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule by an excellent elite", and to oligarchy. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.[239] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC,[240] which took gradually the form of a direct democracy. The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during the early modern period
.

The European enlightenment and the democratic, liberal and nationalistic ideas of the French Revolution was a crucial factor to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the modern Greek state.[241][242]

Notable modern Greek politicians include Ioannis Kapodistrias, founder of the First Hellenic Republic, reformist Charilaos Trikoupis, Eleftherios Venizelos, who marked the shape of modern Greece, social democrats Georgios Papandreou and Alexandros Papanastasiou, Konstantinos Karamanlis, founder of the Third Hellenic Republic, and socialist Andreas Papandreou.

Surnames and personal names

See also: Greek name and Ancient Greek personal names

Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century, at first among ruling families, eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father's name as disambiguator.

Asia Minor and the Ionian Islands, respectively.[246]
Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname, although this usage is not followed in the diaspora, where the male version of the surname is generally used.

With respect to personal names, the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.

otchestvo
).

Sea: exploring and commerce

Main article: Greek shipping
Aristotle Onassis, the best-known Greek shipping magnate worldwide

The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea,

Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus and Sicily. In Plato's Phaidon, Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live around a sea like frogs around a pond" when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean.[248][249] This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832. The sea and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.[46]

Notable Greek seafarers include people such as

Byzantine emperor on trade with the Caliphate opened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.[251] Panayotis Potagos was another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu and Uele River
from the north.

The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule (especially after the

flags of convenience.[187] The most notable shipping magnate of the 20th century was Aristotle Onassis, others being Yiannis Latsis, Stavros G. Livanos, and Stavros Niarchos.[252][253]

Genetics

Further information: Mycenaean Greece § Genetic and anthropometric studies
See also: Genetic history of Europe and Roopkund § Human skeletons
autosomal SNPs
of the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (orange), South Asian (green), North/East European (dark blue) and Caucasian/Anatolian component (beige).
Factor correspondence analysis comparing different individuals from European ancestry groups

In their

archaeogenetic study, Lazaridis et al. (2017) found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar, but not identical; modern Greeks resembled the Mycenaeans, but with some additional dilution of the early Neolithic ancestry. The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks, but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean, before and after the time of its earliest civilizations. Furthermore, proposed migrations by Egyptian or Phoenician colonists was not discernible in their data, thus "rejecting the hypothesis that the cultures of the Aegean were seeded by migrants from the old civilizations of these regions." The FST between the sampled Bronze Age populations and present-day West Eurasians was estimated, finding that Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy.[181][182] In a subsequent study, Lazaridis et al. (2022) concluded that around ~58.4–65.8% of the ancestry of the Mycenaeans came from Anatolian Neolithic Farmers (ANF), while the remainder mainly came from ancient populations related to the Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG) (~20.1–22.7%) and the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) culture in the Levant (~7–14%). The Mycenaeans had also inherited ~3.3–5.5% ancestry from a source related to the Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG), introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of the Eurasian steppe who are hypothesized to be the Proto-Indo-Europeans, and ~0.9–2.3% from the Iron Gates Hunter-Gatherers in the Balkans. Mycenaean elites were genetically the same as Mycenaean commoners in terms of their steppe ancestry, while some Mycenaeans lacked it altogether.[254][255]

A genetic study by Clemente et al. (2021) found that in the Early Bronze Age, the populations of the Minoan,

Helladic, and Cycladic civilizations in the Aegean, were genetically homogeneous. In contrast, the Aegean population during the Middle Bronze Age was more differentiated; probably due to gene flow from a Yamnaya-related population from the Pontic–Caspian steppe. This is corroborated by sequenced genomes of Middle Bronze Age individuals from northern Greece, who had a much higher proportion of steppe-related ancestry; the timing of this gene flow was estimated at ~2,300 BCE, and is consistent with the dominant linguistic theories explaining the emergence of the Proto-Greek language. Present-day Greeks share ~90% of their ancestry with them, suggesting continuity between the two time periods. In the case of Mycenaean Greeks however, this steppe-related ancestry was diluted. The ancestry of the Mycenaeans could be explained via a 2-way admixture model of such MBA individuals in northern Greece, and either an EBA Aegean or MBA Minoan population; the difference between the two time periods could be explained by the general decline of the Mycenaean civilization.[256]

Genetic studies using multiple

Slavic Macedonians and Bulgarians.[258] A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European (mainly Italians) and North-European populations and are close to the Basques,[259] and FST distances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations,[260][261] especially with Italians (−0.0001) and Tuscans (0.0005).[262] A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans, principally Albanians while Cretan Greeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples.[263] Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers (mtDNA) showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations[264][265][266] and principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians[267] and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy, spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country, which Cavalli-Sforza associates it with "the Greek expansion, which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier".[268]

Physical appearance

Greek warriors, details from painted sarcophagus found in Italy, 350–325 BC

A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self-reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows: 119 individuals – hair colour, 11 blond, 45 dark blond/light brown, 49 dark brown, 3 brown red/auburn and 11 had black hair; eye colour, 13 with blue, 15 with intermediate (green, heterochromia) and 91 had brown eye colour.[269]

Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the

University of Athens, and the results of the study showed that light hair colour (blonde/light ash brown) was predominant in 10.7% of the students. 36% had medium hair colour (light brown/medium darkest brown), 32% had darkest brown and 21% black (15.3 off black, 6% midnight black). In conclusion, the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown, ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair. The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14.6% blue/green, 28% medium (light brown) and 57.4% dark brown.[270]

Timeline

The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Southern Italy, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall Greek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ There is a range of interpretations: Carl Blegen dates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC, John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants and Robert Drews places the event as late as 1600 BC.[60][61] Numerous other theories have also been supported,[62] but there is a general consensus that the Greek tribes arrived around 2100 BC.
  2. ^ While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from Asia Minor (Gilbar 1997, p. 8).

Citations

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  2. ^ Clogg 2013, p. 228: "Greeks of the diaspora, settled in some 141 countries, were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity, while the population of the homeland, according to the 1991 census, amounted to some 10.25 million."
  3. ^ "2011 Population and Housing Census". Hellenic Statistical Authority. 12 September 2014. Archived from the original on 16 July 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016. The Resident Population of Greece is 10.816.286, of which 5.303.223 male (49,0%) and 5.513.063 female (51,0%) ... The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912.000. [See Graph 6: Resident Population by Citizenship]
  4. ^ "Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece: An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards" (PDF). Archive of European Integration (AEI). University of Pittsburgh. 15 November 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2016. [p. 5] The Census recorded 762.191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population. Of these, 48.560 are EU or EFTA nationals; there are also 17.426 Cypriots with privileged status.
  5. ^ "Population - Country of Birth, Citizenship Category, Country of Citizenship, Language, Religion, Ethnic/Religious Group, 2011". Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  6. ^ Cole 2011, Yiannis Papadakis, "Cypriots, Greek", pp. 92–95
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  18. Griko dialect, which is still spoken in the Magna Graecia
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  19. ^ a b "Grecia Salentina" (in Italian). Unione dei Comuni della Grecìa Salentina. 2016. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 4 May 2016. La popolazione complessiva dell'Unione è di 54278 residenti così distribuiti (Dati Istat al 31° dicembre 2005. Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d'Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278).
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  25. ^ "Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года в отношении демографических и социально-экономических характеристик отдельных национальностей". Archived from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
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