Greeks in Turkey
Total population | |
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3,000–5,000 (0.006% of population) Antiochian Greeks |
Part of a series on |
Greeks |
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The Greeks in Turkey (
They are the remnants of the estimated 200,000 Greeks who were permitted under the provisions of the
Since 1924, the status of the Greek minority in Turkey has been ambiguous. Beginning in the 1930s, the government instituted repressive policies forcing many Greeks to emigrate. Examples are the
A minority of Muslim Pontic Greek speakers, using a dialect called "Romeyka" or "Ophitic", still live in the area around Of.[17][18][19]
Name
The Greeks of Turkey are referred to in Turkish as Rumlar, meaning "Romans". This derives from the self-designation Ῥωμαῖος (Rhomaîos, pronounced ro-ME-os) or Ρωμιός (Rhomiós, pronounced ro-mee-OS or rom-YOS) used by Byzantine Greeks, who were the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east.
The ethnonym Yunanlar is exclusively used by Turks to refer to Greeks from Greece and not for the population of Turkey.
In Greek, Greeks from Asia Minor are referred to as Greek: Μικρασιάτες or Greek: Ανατολίτες (Mikrasiátes or Anatolítes, lit. "Asia Minor-ites" and "Anatolians"), while Greeks from Pontos (Pontic Greeks) are known as Greek: Πόντιοι (Póntioi).
Greeks from Istanbul are known as Greek: Κωνσταντινουπολίτες (Konstantinoupolítes, lit. "Constantinopolites"), most often shortened to Greek: Πολίτες (Polítes, pronounced po-LEE-tes). Those who arrived during the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey are also referred to as Greek: Πρόσφυγες (Prósfyges, i. e. "Refugees").
History
Background
Greeks have been living in what is now Turkey continuously since the middle 2nd millennium BC. Following upheavals in mainland Greece during the
Following the conquest of
Following the
Ottoman Empire
Constantinople fell in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. Beginning with the Seljuk invasion in the 11th century, and continuing through the Ottoman years, Anatolia underwent a process of Turkification, its population gradually changing from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking.
Ottoman Empire followed the Sharia rules and there were restrictions regarding the building and restoration of churches. Ottoman documents display that restriction on non-Muslims applied differently depending on the regions. After the
A class of moneyed ethnically Greek merchants (they commonly claimed noble
The first Greek millionaire in the Ottoman era was
The outbreak of the
By the late 19th and early 20th century, the Greek element was found predominantly in
In the first half of 1914, the Ottoman authorities expelled more than 100,000 Ottoman Greeks to Greece.[27]
World War I and its aftermath
Given their large Greek populations, Constantinople and Asia Minor featured prominently in the Greek irredentist concept of Megali Idea (lit. "Great Idea") during the 19th century and early 20th century. The goal of Megali Idea was the liberation of all Greek-inhabited lands and the eventual establishment of a successor state to the Byzantine Empire with Constantinople as its capital. The Greek population amounted to 1,777,146 (16.42% of population during 1910).[28]
During World War I and its aftermath (1914–1923), the government of the Ottoman Empire and subsequently the Turkish National Movement, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, instigated a violent campaign against the Greek population of the Empire.[29] The campaign included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, and summary expulsions. According to various sources, several hundreds of thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period.[30] Some of the survivors and refugees, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire.
Following Greece's participation on the Allied side in World War I, and the participation of the Ottoman Empire on the side of the Central Powers, Greece received an order to land in Smyrna by the Triple Entente as part of the planned partition of the Ottoman Empire.
On May 15, 1919, twenty thousand
Subsequently, the
During the
After the end of the Greco-Turkish War, most of the Greeks remaining in the Ottoman Empire were transferred to Greece under the terms of the 1923
Republic of Turkey
Due to the Greeks' strong emotional attachment to their first capital as well as the importance of the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Greek and worldwide orthodoxy, the Greek population of Constantinople was specifically exempted and allowed to stay in place. Article 14 of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) also exempted Imbros and Tenedos islands from the population exchange and required Turkey to accommodate the local Greek majority and their rights. For the most part, the Turks disregarded this agreement and implemented a series of contrary measures which resulted in a further decline of the Greek population, as evidenced by demographic statistics.
In 1923, the Ministry of Public Works asked from the private companies in Turkey to prepare lists of employees with their religion and later ordered them to fire the non-Muslim employees and replace them with Muslim Turks. In 1934, Turkey created the Surname Law which forbade certain surnames that contained connotations of foreign cultures, nations, tribes, and religions. Many minorities, including Greeks, had to adopt last names of a more Turkish rendition.[40][41][42][43] As from 1936, Turkish became the teaching language (except the Greek language lessons) in Greek schools.[44] The Wealthy Levy imposed in 1942 also served to reduce the economic potential of Greek businesspeople in Turkey.[45] When the Axis attacked on Greece during WW2 hundreds of volunteers from the Greek community of Istanbul went to fight in Greece with the approval of Turkish authorities.[46]
In 6–7 September 1955 an
The pogrom greatly accelerated emigration of ethnic Greeks from Turkey, and the Istanbul region in particular. The Greek population of Turkey declined from 119,822 persons in 1927,[13] to about 7,000 by 1978. In Istanbul alone, the Greek population decreased from 65,108 to 49,081 between 1955 and 1960.[13]
In 1964 Turkish prime minister
In 1965 the Turkish government established on Imbros an open agricultural prison for Turkish mainland convicts; farming land was expropriated for this purpose. Greek Orthodox communal property was also expropriated and between 1960 and 1990 about 200 churches and chapels were reportedly destroyed. Many from the Greek community on the islands of Imbros and Tenedos responded to these acts by leaving.[56] In addition, at the same year the first mosque was built in the island. It was named Fatih Camii (Conqueror's Mosque) and was built on an expropriated Greek Orthodox communal property at the capital of the island.[57]
In 1991, Turkish authorities ended the military "forbidden zone" status on the island of Imbros.[56]
In 1992, Panimbrian Committee mentioned, that members of the Greek community are "considered by the authorities to be second class citizens" and that the local Greeks are afraid to express their feelings, to protest against certain actions of the authorities or the Turkish settlers, or even to allow anybody to make use of their names when they give some information referring to the violation of their rights, fearing the consequences which they will have to face from the Turkish authorities.[56] The same year the Human Rights Watch report concluded that the Turkish government has denied the rights of the Greek community on Imbros and Tenedos in violation of the Lausanne Treaty and international human rights laws and agreements.[56]
In 1997, the Turkish state seized the Prinkipo Greek Orthodox Orphanage which had been forcefully closed in 1964.[58] After many years of court battles, Turkey returned the property to the Greek community in 2012.[59][58]
In August 2002, a new law was passed by the Turkish parliament to protect the minorities rights, because of Turkey's EU candidacy. With this new law, it prevented the Turkish treasury from seizing community foundations properties.[55]
In 15 August 2010, a ritual was held for the Assumption of Mary at the Sumela Monastery after a 88 years old ban. This annual ritual continues, although it often sparks debate in Turkey for “keeping foreign traditions alive on the day Trabzon was captured by the Turks.”.[60]
Current situation
Today most of the remaining Greeks live in Istanbul. In the Fener district of Istanbul where the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is located, fewer than 100 Greeks live today. A handful also live in other cities of Anatolia. Most are elderly.
Another location where the Greek community lives is the islands Imbros and Tenedos near the Dardanelles, but this community diminished rapidly during the 20th century and only 200 elderly Greeks have remained there, less than 2%. In the 1950s, an estimated 98% of the island was Greek. In the last years the condition of the Greek community in these islands seems to be slightly improving.[61][62]
The
The Greek minority continues to encounter problems relating to education and property rights. A 1971 law nationalized religious high schools, and closed the Halki seminary on Istanbul's Heybeli Island which had trained Orthodox clergy since the 19th century. A later outrage was the vandalism of the Greek cemetery on Imbros on October 29, 2010. In this context, problems affecting the Greek minority on the islands of Imbros and Tenedos continue to be reported to the European Commission.[64]
In July 2011, Istanbul's Greek minority newspaper Apoyevmatini declared that it would shut down due to financial difficulties. The four-page Greek-language newspaper faced closure due to financial problems that had been further aggravated by the economic crisis in Greece, when Greek companies stopped publishing advertisements in the newspaper and the offices have already been shut down. This ignited campaign to help the newspaper. Among the supporters were students from Istanbul Bilgi University who subscribed to the newspaper. The campaign saved the paper from bankruptcy for the time being. Because the Greek community is close to extinction, the obituary notices and money from Greek foundations, as well as subscriptions overwhelmingly by Turkish people, are the only sources of income. This income covers only 40 percent of the newspaper expenditures.[65]
That event was followed in September 2011 by a government cash grant of 45,000 Turkish liras to the newspaper through the Turkish Press Advertisement Agency, as part of a wider support of minority newspapers.[66] The Turkish Press Advertisement Agency also declared intention to publish official government advertisements in minority newspapers including Greek papers Apoyevmatini and IHO.[67]
As of 2007, Turkish authorities have seized a total of 1,000 immovables of 81 Greek organizations as well as individuals of the Greek community.[68] On the other hand, Turkish courts provided legal legitimacy to unlawful practices by approving discriminatory laws and policies that violated fundamental rights they were responsible to protect.[69] As a result, foundations of the Greek communities started to file complaints after 1999 when Turkey's candidacy to the European Union was announced. Since 2007, decisions are being made in these cases; the first ruling was made in a case filed by the Phanar Greek Orthodox College Foundation, and the decision was that Turkey violated Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which secured property rights.[69]
A government decree published on 27 August 2011, paves the way to return assets that once belonged to Greek, Armenian, Assyrian, Kurd or Jewish trusts and makes provisions for the government to pay compensation for any confiscated property that has since been sold on, and in a move likely to thwart possible court rulings against the country by the European Court of Human Rights.[70][71]
Since the vast majority of properties confiscated from Greek trusts (and other minority trusts) have been sold to third parties, which as a result cannot be taken from their current owners and be returned, the Greek trusts will receive compensation from the government instead. Compensation for properties that were purchased or were sold to third parties will be decided on by the Finance Ministry. However, no independent body is involved in deciding on compensation, according to the regulations of the government decree of 27 August 2011. If the compensation were judged fairly and paid in full, the state would have to pay compensation worth many millions of Euros for a large number of properties. Another weakness of the government decree is that the state body with a direct interest in reducing the amount of compensation paid, which is the Finance Ministry, is the only body permitted to decide on the amount of compensation paid. The government decree also states that minority trusts must apply for restitution within 12 months of the publication of the government decree, which was issued on 1 October 2011, leaving less than 11 months for the applications to be prepared and submitted. After this deadline terminates on 27 August 2012, no applications can be submitted, in which the government aims to settle this issue permamenetly on a legally sound basis and prevent future legal difficulties involving the European Court of Human Rights.[72]
Demographics of Greeks in Istanbul
The Greek community of Istanbul numbered 67,550
Year | People |
---|---|
1897 | 236,000[75] |
1923 | 100,000[76] |
1955 | 48,000 |
1978 | 7,000[77] |
2006 | 2,500[15] |
2008 | 2,000[78] |
2014 | 2,200[79]–2,500[15] |
Notable people
- Patriarch Bartholomew I(1940): current patriarch of Constantinople. Born in Imbros as Dimitrios Arhondonis.
- Elia Kazan (1909-2003): American film director. Born Elias Kazancıoğlu in Istanbul
- as Ioannis Lambriniadis.
- Patriarch Benedict I of Jerusalem (1892-1980): Patriarch of Jerusalem from 1957 to 1980. Born in Bursa as Vasileios Papadopoulos.
- Gilbert Biberian (1944-2023): guitarist and composer. Born in Istanbul from a Greek-Armenian family.
- Chrysanthos Mentis Bostantzoglou (1918-1995): cartoonist known as Bost, born in Istanbul.
- Thomas Cosmades (1924-2010): evangelical preacher and translators of the New Testament in Turkish. Born in Istanbul.
- Patriarch Demetrios I of Constantinople (1914-1991): patriarch of Constantinople from 1972 to 1991. Born in Istanbul.
- Antonis Diamantidis (1892-1945): musician. Born in Istanbul.
- Savas Dimopoulos (1952): particle physicist at Stanford University. Born in Istanbul.
- Aleksandros Hacopulos (1911-1980): politician, member of Grand National Assembly twice
- Violet Kostanda (1958): former volleyball player for Eczacıbaşı and the Turkish National Team. She was born in Istanbul from a Greek-Romani family. Her father Hristo played football for Beşiktaş.
- Minas Gekos (1959): basketball player and coach who played mainly in Greece. Born in Kurtuluş district of Istanbul.
- Patroklos Karantinos (1903-1976): modernism architect. Born in Istanbul.
- Kostas Kasapoglou (1935-2016): footballer player, once capped for the Turkish National Team. Born in Istanbul, he was known with his Turkishized name Koço Kasapoğlu.
- AEK Athens. Born in Istanbul, was forced to relocate to Athens.
- Antonis Kafetzopoulos (1951): actor. Born in Istanbul moved in Greece in 1964.
- Michael Giannatos (1941-2013): actor. Born in Istanbul moved in Greece in 1964
- Kostas Karipis (1880-1952): rhebetiko musician. Born in Istanbul.
- Nikos Kovis (1953): former Turkish football international. Born in Istanbul.
- Lefteris Antoniadis (1924-2012): Fenerbahçe legend and member of the Turkish national football team. He was born in Büyükada island near Istanbul and was known in Turkey as Lefter Küçükandonyadis.
- Ioanna Koutsouranti (1936): philosopher and Maltepe University Academic. Born in Istanbul from a Greek (Rum) family, she's known in Turkey as İoanna Kuçuradi.
- Sappho Leontias (1832-1900): writer, feminist and educationist. Born in Istanbul.
- Petros Markaris (1937): writer. Born in Istanbul.
- Kleanthis Maropoulos (1919-1991): Greek international footballer. Born in Istanbul, fled to Greece during the Greek-Turks population exchange when he was 3 years old.
- Yannis Vasilis, a former ultra-nationalist Turk turned pacifist and promoter of Greek heritage in Turkey after finding out his Greek heritage.
See also
References
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Turkey is a nation–state built on remnants of the Ottoman Empire where non-Muslim minorities were guaranteed the right to set up educational institutions; however, since its establishment, it has officially recognised only Armenians, Greeks and Jews as minorities and guaranteed them the right to manage educational institutions as enshrined in the Treaty of Lausanne. [...] Private language teaching courses teach 'traditionally used languages', elective language courses have been introduced in public schools and universities are allowed to teach minority languages.
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Constantinople contained the largest urban Greek population in the eastern Mediterranean and was the area's biggest commercial, banking and maritime centre.
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the Surname Law was meant to foster a sense of Turkishness within society and prohibited surnames that were related to foreign ethnicities and nations
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- ^ RUM ORPHANAGE | World Monuments Fund
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- ^ Greek Orthodox orphanage, Europe’s largest wooden building, awaits salvation off Istanbul
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- ^ a b c d DENYING HUMAN RIGHTS AND ETHNIC IDENTITY: THE GREEKS OF TURKEY - A Helsinki Watch Report 1992
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- ^ a b Orthodox Patriarchate in Turkey Wins One Battle, Still Faces Struggle for Survival
- ^ Population decline leaves Rums with Pyrrhic Victory
- ^ Annual ritual at Sümela Monastery sparks debate
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6-7 Eylül olaylarından önce İstanbul'da 135 bin Rum yaşıyordu. Sonrasında bu sayı 70 bine düştü. 1978'e gelindiğinde bu rakam 7 bindi.
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- ODIHR Human Dimension Implementation Meeting 2014 Rights of Persons Belonging to National Minorities - Warsaw 29 September 2014
Further reading
- Alexandrēs, Alexēs. "The Greek minority of Istanbul and Greek-Turkish relations, 1918-1974." Center for Asia Minor Studies, 1983.
- Grigoriadis, Ioannis N. (2021). "Between citizenship and the millet: the Greek minority in republican Turkey". Middle Eastern Studies. 57 (5): 741–757. S2CID 233588979.
External links
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. (January 2017) |
- Istanbul Greek Minority Information Portal for present Greek Minority of Turkey in Greek, Turkish and English
- Athens protests latest desecration of Orthodox cemetery in Turkey
- Greeks of Istanbul (İstanbul Rumları) (Video)
- The Greeks of Turkey
- Greek - Turkish minorities
- Greeks Living in Turkey Today
- Turkey's Greek Community Grapples with adversity
- Turkey - Greeks