African humid period
The African humid period (AHP; also known by
The AHP led to a widespread settlement of the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts, and had a profound effect on African cultures, such as the birth of the
Research history
The idea that changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun influence the strength of the monsoons was already advanced in 1921, and while the original description was partly inaccurate, later widespread evidence for such orbital controls on climate was found.[1] At first it was believed that humid periods in Africa correlate with glacial stages ("pluvial hypothesis") before radiocarbon dating became widespread.[5]
The development and existence of the African humid period has been investigated with
Research issues
While the precipitation changes since the last glacial cycle are well established, the magnitude and timing of the changes are unclear.
Terminology
The term "African humid period" was coined in 2000 by deMenocal et al.[23] Earlier humid periods are sometimes known as "African humid periods"[24] and a number of dry/wet periods have been defined for the Central Africa region.[25] In general, these types of climate fluctuations between wetter and drier periods are known as "pluvials" and "interpluvials", respectively.[26] Because the AHP did not affect all of Africa, there have been calls to not use the term[27] also because it has supposedly colonial implications,[28] and some researchers have specified "North African humid period" and "Northern African humid period".[29]
Other terms that have been applied to the
Background and beginning
The African humid period took place in the late
The African humid period was not the first such phase; evidence for about 230 older such "green Sahara"/wet periods exist going back perhaps to the first appearance of the Sahara 7–8 million years ago,
The Bølling–Allerød warming appears to be synchronous with the onset of the African humid period[67][68][69] as well as to increased humidity in Arabia.[70] Later, in the Blytt–Sernander sequence the humid period coincides with the Atlantic period.[71]
Conditions before the African humid period
During the
There is little and often equivocal evidence of human activity in the Sahara or Arabia at that time, reflecting its drier nature;
Before the onset of the AHP, it is thought that Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake Edward,[91] Lake Turkana[92] and the Sudd swamps had dried out.[93] The White Nile had become a seasonal river[93] whose course[94] along with that of the main Nile may have been dammed by dunes.[95] The Nile Delta was partially dry, with sandy plains extending between ephemeral channels and exposed seafloor, and it became a source of sand for ergs[c] farther east.[97] Other lakes across Africa, such as Lake Chad and Lake Tanganyika, also had shrunk[d] during this time,[98] and both the Niger River and Senegal River were stunted.[99]
Early humidity increases
Whether some parts of the desert such as highlands like the
The end of the glacial drought occurred between 17,000 and 11,000 years ago,[104] with an earlier beginning noted in the Acacus[18] and Saharan mountains[107][81] 26,500 - 22,500[18] and (possibly) 18,500 years ago, respectively.[108] In southern and central Africa earlier starts 17,000 and 17,500 years ago, respectively, may be linked to Antarctic warming,[109][35] while Lake Malawi appears to have been low until about 10,000 years ago.[110]
High lake levels occurred in the Jebel Marra and
Onset
The humid period began about 15,000[109][114]-14,500 years ago.[e][48] The onset of the humid period took place almost simultaneously over all of Northern[f] and Tropical Africa,[118] with impacts as far as Santo Antão on Cape Verde.[119][120] In Arabia, wet conditions apparently took about two millennia to advance northward,[117][121] a gradual advance is supported by tephrochronological data.[122] Likewise, in the Sahara there might have been a delay of about a millennium between the onset of the AHP and the full establishment of humid conditions, as vegetation growth and the filling of river systems took time.[123]
Lake Victoria reappeared and overflowed;[113] Lake Albert also overflowed into the White Nile[111] 15,000–14,500 years ago[91] and so did Lake Tana, into the Blue Nile.[111] The White Nile flooded part of its valley[124] and reconnected to the main Nile.[114][g] In Egypt widespread flooding by the "Wild Nile" took place;[111] this "Wild Nile" period[126] led to the largest recorded floods on this river,[95] sedimentation in floodplains,[127] and probably also impacted human populations along the river.[128] Even earlier, 17,000–16,800 years ago, meltwater from glaciers in Ethiopia – which were retreating at that time – may have begun to increase the flow of water and sediment in the Nile.[129] In the East African Rift water levels in lakes began to rise by about 15,500/15,000[130]-12,000 years ago;[131] Lake Kivu began overflowing into Lake Tanganyika by about 10,500 years ago.[132]
About the same time that the AHP started, the cold glacial climate in Europe associated with Heinrich event 1 ended[113] with climate changing as far as Australasia.[111] A warming and retreat of sea ice around Antarctica coincides with the start of the African humid period,[133] although the Antarctic Cold Reversal also falls into this time[35] and may relate to a drought interval recorded in the Gulf of Guinea.[134]
Causes
The African humid period was caused by a stronger
Climate models indicate that changes from a dry to a green Sahara and back have threshold behaviour, with the change occurring once a certain level of insolation is exceeded;[140] likewise, a gradual drop of insolation often leads to a sudden transition back to a dry Sahara.[141] This is due to various feedback processes which are at work,[20] and in climate models there is often more than one stable climate-vegetation state.[142] Sea surface temperature and greenhouse gas changes synchronized the beginning of the AHP across Africa.[118]
Orbital changes
The African humid period has been explained by increased
During summer, solar heating is stronger over the North African land than over the ocean, forming a
Obliquity and precession are responsible for two of the foremost
Albedo feedbacks
According to
Decreasing albedo resulting from vegetation changes is an important factor in the precipitation increase.[19] Specifically, increased precipitation increases the amount of vegetation; vegetation absorbs more sunlight and thus more energy is available for the monsoon. In addition, evapotranspiration from vegetation adds more moisture, although this effect is less pronounced than the albedo effect.[72] Heat fluxes in the soil and evaporation are also altered by the vegetation.[156]
Reduced dust generation from a wetter Sahara,[157] where major dust-generating regions were submerged by lakes, influences the climate[158] by reducing the amount of light absorbed by dust. Decreased dust emissions also modify cloud properties, making them less reflective and more efficient at inducing precipitation.[1][159][160] In climate models, reduced amounts of dust in the troposphere together with vegetation changes can[161][162] often but not always explain the northward expansion of the monsoon.[163][164] There is not universal agreement on the effects of dust on precipitation in the Sahel, however,[1] in part because the effects of dust on precipitation may be dependent on its size.[165]
In addition to raw precipitation changes, changes in precipitation seasonality such as the length of dry seasons need to be considered when assessing the effects of climate change on vegetation,[166] as well as the fertilizing effects of increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere.[156]
Other sources of albedo changes:
- Changes in soil properties result in changes in the monsoon; replacing desert soils with loamy ones results in increased precipitation,[167] and soils that are wet[156] or contain organic matter reflect less sunlight and accelerate the moistening process.[1] Desert sand changes also modify the albedo.[156]
- Albedo changes caused by lakes and wetlands[16] can alter precipitation in climate models.[167]
Intertropical Convergence Zone changes
Warmer extratropics during summer may have drawn the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) northward[161] by about five or seven degrees latitude,[168] resulting in precipitation changes.[169] Sea surface temperatures off North Africa warmed under orbital effects and through weaker trade winds, leading to a northward movement of the ITCZ and increasing moisture gradients between land and sea.[72] Two temperature gradients, one between a cooler Atlantic during spring and an already warming African continent, the other between warmer temperatures north of 10° latitude and cooler south, may have assisted in this change.[170] In Eastern Africa, ITCZ changes had relatively little effect on precipitation changes.[171][172] The past position of the ITCZ in Arabia is also contentious.[173]
Precipitation changes in East Africa
The African humid period that took place in
Changes in the Congo Air Boundary[i][180] or increased convergence along this boundary may have contributed;[177][180] the Congo Air Boundary would have been shifted east by the stronger westerly winds[178] directed by lower atmospheric pressure over Northern Africa,[181] allowing additional moisture from the Atlantic to reach East Africa.[182] The parts of East Africa that were isolated from Atlantic moisture did not become significantly wetter during the AHP[115] although at one site in Somalia the seasonality of precipitation may[183] or may not have decreased.[184]
Various contributing factors may have led to the increased humidity in East Africa, not all of which were necessarily operating simultaneously during the AHP.[185][186] That the "African humid period" reached this part of Africa has been doubted.[187] Finally, increased greenhouse gas concentrations may have been involved in directing the onset of the AHP in tropical southeastern Africa;[188] there, orbital changes would be expected to lead to climate variations opposite to those in the Northern Hemisphere.[189] The pattern of humidity changes in south-eastern Africa are complex.[190]
Additional factors
- Climate change in the far northern latitudes may have contributed to the onset of the AHP.Scandinavian and the Laurentide Ice Sheets occurred at its beginning,[156] and in climate models, a retreat of the ice sheets is often required to simulate the humid period[191] although their size has little influence on its intensity.[192] Their existence might also explain why the AHP did not start immediately with the early insolation peak, as still existing ice sheets would have cooled the climate.[193][194]
- insolation would lead to warmer sea surface temperatures, increasing precipitation by increasing moisture gradients between land and sea.[72] Changes in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC)[164] and North Atlantic temperature gradients were also involved.[147]
- Warming of the
- Increased precipitation during winter is correlated with a larger spatial extent of Mediterranean precipitation and might have aided in the establishment of the AHP, especially in
- Trough-mediated northward transport of moisture during autumn and spring has also been proposed to explain the increased precipitation and its underestimation by climate models.[16] In one climate model, increased northward moisture transport by such troughs increases autumn rainfall in the Sahara, especially in the mid-Holocene and when the climate is already moister than usual there.[208]
- Weaker subtropical anticyclones were proposed as an explanation during the 1970s–1980s.[209]
- In montane regions such as the last glacial maximum may have reduced evaporation and thus allowed an early onset of humidity.[210]
- Changes in the Earth's geomagnetic field may be linked to the humidity changes.[211]
- Increased moisture supply from dispersed lakesLake Megachad may have increased the precipitation, although this effect is probably not adequate to explain the entire AHP[213] and model-dependent.[214] A similar role has been attributed to the extensive wetlands, drainages and lakes in the Eastern Sahara[215] and to the ecosystem in general.[216]
- Two high elevation winds, the African Easterly Jet and thus decreased transport of moisture out of Africa.[178]
- Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations may have played a role in triggering the AHP,[156] especially its extension across the equator,[218] as well as its resumption after the Younger Dryas and Heinrich event 1 through increased sea surface temperatures.[219] Carbon dioxide concentrations have a strong influence on the intensity of orbital changes needed to start an AHP[220] but do not play a major role in controlling its intensity.[192]
- In some parts of the Sahara increased water supply from montane regions may have assisted in the development of moist conditions.[221][222]
- Larger forests in Eurasia may have led to a northward shift of the ITCZ.[223]
- Along the coast of Senegal, sea level rise helped the establishment of the AHP vegetation.[224]
- Other proposed mechanisms involve latent heat fluxes,[159] changes in tropical wave activity over Africa,[226] low pressure in northwestern Africa drawing moisture into the Sahara,[227] changes in the solar cycles[228] and complex atmospheric flow phenomena.[229]
Effects
The African humid period extended over most of Africa:
The discharge of the
Flora and fauna of the Sahara
During the African humid period, lakes, rivers,
The vegetation cover then extended over almost all of the Sahara[48] and consisted of an open grass savannah with shrubs and trees,[147][249] with a moist savanna vegetation getting established in the mountains.[250] In general, the vegetation expanded northward[50] to 27–30° northern latitude in West Africa[251][10] with a Sahel boundary at about 23° north,[53] as the Sahara was populated by plants that today often occur about 400–600 kilometres (250–370 mi)[252][253] farther south.[254] The northward movement of vegetation took some time and some plant species moved faster than others.[255] Plants that perform C3 carbon fixation became more common.[256] The fire regime of the vegetation changed;[257] in the desert the expansion of vegetation facilitated fire activity, while in the savanna the increased prevalence of woody vegetation reduced fire activity.[258]
Forests and plants from the humid tropics were concentrated around lakes, rivers[259] and the Atlantic Ocean coast of Senegal;[260] waterbodies were also settled by aquatic and partially aquatic plants[261] and the Senegalese coast by mangroves.[224] The landscape during the AHP has been described as a mosaic between various vegetation types of semi-desert and humid origin[262] rather than a simple northward displacement of plant species,[263] and some brown or yellow vegetation communities persisted.[1] There was no southward displacement of Mediterranean plants during the Holocene[264] and on the Tibesti Mountains cold temperatures may have restricted the expansion of tropical plants.[265] Pollen data often show a dominance of grasses over humid tropics trees.[10] The tree Lophira alata and others may have spread out of the African forests during the AHP,[266] and the Lactuca plants may have split into two species under the effects of the AHP and other climate changes in Africa during the Holocene.[267]
The Sahara climate did not become entirely homogeneous; its central-eastern parts were probably drier than the western and central sectors
Lakes and rivers of the Sahara
A number of lakes formed
Among the large
In some parts of the Sahara
Increased precipitation resulted in the formation or reactivation of river systems in the Sahara.
Rivers such as the
Humans of the Sahara
Conditions and resources were ripe for first
Humans were hunting large animals with weapons that have been found in archaeological sites
Humans created
These populations have been described as
Additional manifestations in the Sahara
The expanded vegetation and
The increased precipitation also resulted in recharged
The formation of lakes
Whether the strengthening of the monsoon enhanced or reduced upwelling off Northwestern Africa is debatable,[442] with some research suggesting that the strengthening in upwelling decreased sea surface temperatures[443][444][445] and increased the biological productivity of the sea,[442] while other research suggests that the opposite occurred; less upwelling with more moisture.[72] However, regardless of whether upwelling increased or decreased, it is possible that the strengthening of the monsoon boosted productivity off the coasts of Northern Africa because the increased river discharge delivered more nutrients to the sea.[443][444][445] The decline of dust input may have caused the cessation of deep-water coral growth in the eastern Atlantic during the AHP by starving them of nutrients.[446]
Arabia
Precipitation in
Forests and wildfire activity expanded across parts of Arabia.[464] Freshwater sources in Arabia during the AHP became focus points of human activity[465] and herding activity between mountains and lowlands occurred.[121] In addition, karstic activity took place on exposed coral reefs in the Red Sea and traces of it are still recognizable today.[466] Increased precipitation has been also invoked to explain decreased salinities in the Red Sea,[467] increased sedimentation[468] and increased river inflow, while dust input decreased.[469] Rock art depicts wildlife that existed in Arabia during the humid period.[470] Archaeological sites such as cairns appeared with the beginning of the humid period.[471]
The humid period in Arabia did not last as long as in Africa,[472] deserts did not retreat as much[233] and precipitation may not have reached the central[473] and northern part of the peninsula[474] past Oman[463] and the Yemen Highlands;[475] northern Arabia remained somewhat drier than southern Arabia,[476] droughts were still common[477] and the land and still produced dust.[478] One study has estimated that the amount of rainfall in the Red Sea did increase to no more than 1 metre per year (39 in/year).[479] Whether some former lakes in Arabia were actually marshes is contentious.[480]
East Africa
The Ethiopian
Glaciers stopped retreating or briefly expanded in East Africa at the beginning of the AHP before continuing retreat.[536] On Mount Kilimanjaro they may have expanded during the AHP[537] after a phase during the Younger Dryas where the mountain was ice free,[538] but the tree line also rose at that time, accompanied by soil formation.[539] The wetter climate may have destabilized the neighbouring Mount Meru volcano, causing a giant landslide that removed its summit.[540]
2 during the AHP.[544]
Surprisingly, and contrary to the patterns expected from precessional changes, the
In East Africa, the AHP led to improved environmental conditions in terms of food and water supply from large lakes, allowing early human populations to survive and grow in size without requiring major changes in food gathering strategies.
Other parts of Africa and the rainforest realm
On
Levant and Mediterranean
High latitude Africa has not undergone large scale changes in the past 11,700 years;[135] the Atlas Mountains may have blocked the monsoon from expanding further north.[582] However, river valley[583] and cave deposits showing a moister climate in southern Morocco,[161] increased precipitation in the Algerian highlands,[584] vegetation changes in the Middle Atlas,[585] several floods in Tunisian rivers[586] and ecosystem changes which impacted steppe-dependent rodents of Northern Africa have been linked to the AHP.[587]
In the
The Mediterranean Sea became less saline during the AHP, in part due to increased precipitation from the westerlies[592] but also from increased river discharge in Africa, leading to the formation of sapropel layers when the increased runoff led to the Mediterranean becoming more stratified[u][600][601] and eutrophied,[602] with changes in the main water masses of the sea.[603] The S1 sapropel layer is specifically associated with the AHP[244] and with increased discharge of the Nile and other African rivers.[349] These processes together with decreased dust transport by wind led to changes in the sediment patterns of the Mediterranean,[604] and increased marine nutrient availability[602] and food web productivity in the Mediterranean,[605] which impacted the development of deep-sea corals.[606]
In the
Southern Africa
The effects, if any, of the African humid period on Southern Africa have been unclear. Originally it was proposed that the orbitally driven changes would imply a dry period in Southern Africa which would have given way to moister conditions as the northern AHP ended,[610][611] as the ITCZ should shift its average position between the two hemispheres.[135] However, the lack of paleoclimatology data with sufficient time resolution from Southern Africa has made it difficult to assess the climate there during the AHP.[611] More recently obtained paleoclimate data have suggested however that southern Africa was actually wetter during the AHP rather than drier,[612][613] reaching as far as north-northwest Madagascar[614][615] 23° south[177] and as far as the catchment of the Orange River.[616] The area between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi has been interpreted as the limit of the AHP's influence.[617]
Conversely, and consistent with the opposite reaction pattern of the Southern Hemisphere, the
Numerical estimates
Estimates of the exact amount of increased precipitation vary widely.[628] During the African humid period, Saharan rainfall increased to 300–400 millimetres per year (12–16 in/year),[629] and values exceeding 400 millimetres per year (16 in/year) may have spread to 19–21° northern latitude.[630] In the eastern Sahara, a gradient from 200 millimetres per year (7.9 in/year) increment in the north to 500 millimetres per year (20 in/year) in the south has been identified.[338] An area with less than 100 millimetres per year (3.9 in/year) may have remained in the Eastern Sahara however,[631][632] although its driest parts may have received 20-fold more precipitation than today.[435] Precipitation in the Sahara probably reached no more than 500 millimetres per year (20 in/year),[633] with large uncertainty.[223]
Other reconstructed values of the precipitation increase indicate an annual increase of about 150–320 millimetres (5.9–12.6 in) in Africa,
Effect on other climate modes
The
Remote effects of the AHP on climate have also been studied,
The AMOC transports heat from the Southern into the Northern Hemisphere[165] and is implicated in starting the Holocene AHP an earlier AHPs after the end of an ice age.[653] Various studies have been conducted to determine which effects reduced dust supply and the greening of the Sahara would have had on its intensity,[654] with conflicting results on which effects would predominate.[165] Increased heat transport either through the atmosphere or the ocean would result in warming in the Arctic.[655]
Remote precipitation and the AHP
The Sahara greening intensified the Indian and Asian monsoons,
Sun et al. 2020 proposed that the greening of the Sahara during the AHP can increase precipitation over the Middle East even if neither the African nor the Indian monsoons reach it.[667] During spring, the increased vegetation forces anomalous atmospheric circulations that direct moisture transport from the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and eastern tropical Africa into the Middle East, increasing precipitation[668] and agricultural productivity there.[669] This could explain increased precipitation in the Middle East during the AHP:[670] A wet climate occurred in the Middle East during the early Holocene, leading to the Ubaid period of settlement in Mesopotamia, followed by dry phases around 5,500 years ago[671] and a concomitant reduction in simulated wheat yield.[672]
Hurricanes and the AHP
One climate model has indicated that a greener Sahara and reduced dust output would have increased
Fluctuations
Climate variability during the AHP is poorly documented,
Another dry phase took place about 8,200 years ago, spanning East Africa
Cooling of the Northern Atlantic during Heinrich event 1 and the Younger Dryas associated with a weaker Atlantic meridional overturning circulation leads to atmospheric pressure anomalies that shift the Tropical Easterly Jet and precipitation belts south, making Northern Africa drier. [191][219][710] Storm tracks shift north away from the Mediterranean.[711] Earlier Heinrich events were also accompanied by drought in North Africa.[60] Likewise, a weakening of moisture transport and a less eastward position of the Congo Air Boundary contributed to reducing precipitation in East Africa[691] although some parts of southern Africa at Lake Malawi were wetter during the Younger Dryas.[712]
Many humidity fluctuations in the early Holocene appear to be caused by the discharge of
In
Other variations appear to have occurred 9,500–9,000 and 7,400–6,800[309] as well as 10,200, 8,200, 6,600 and 6,000 years before present; they were accompanied by decreased population density in parts of the Sahara,[711] and other dry interludes in Egypt have been noted 9,400–9,300, 8,800–8,600, 7,100–6,900 and 6,100–5,900 years ago.[722] The duration and severity of dry events is difficult to reconstruct[392] and the impact of events like the Younger Dryas is heterogeneous even between neighbouring areas.[723] During dry episodes, humans might have headed to waterbodies which still had resources,[381] and cultural changes in the central Sahara have been linked to some dry episodes.[724] Aside from fluctuations, a southward retreat of the humid period may have been underway after 8,000 years ago[725] with a major drought around 7,800 years ago.[726]
End
The African humid period ended about 6,000–5,000 years ago;
The
A major pan-tropical environmental change took place about 4,000 years ago.
Chronology
Whether the drying happened everywhere at the same time and whether it took place in centuries or millennia is unclear
Most recently, the idea has taken hold that the end of the African humid period occurred from north to south in a stepwise fashion.
Some evidence points to a two-phase change in climate with two distinct dry transitions[761] caused by the existence of two different steps of insolation decrease at which climate changes.[762]
Distinct environmental changes may have occurred in Central Africa, Western Africa and East Africa.
Increased variability in precipitation may have preceded the end of the AHP; this is commonly observed before a sudden change in climate.
Sahara and Sahel
After a first brief lake level drop between 5,700 and 4,700 calibrated years ago that might reflect climate variability towards the end of the African humid period,
The tropical vegetation was replaced by desert vegetation, in some places suddenly and in others more gradually.
At
East Africa and Arabia
In northern East Africa, water levels dropped rapidly about 5,500 years ago
Some data from
Forest cover in the area of the African Great Lakes decreased between 4,700 and 3,700 years ago,
The end of the AHP at
Mediterranean
The southern
Tropical West Africa
In Lake Bosumtwi the African humid period ended about 3,000 years ago[144] after a brief moistening between 5,410 ± 80 years ago that ended 3,170 ± 70 years ago. This, earlier but similar changes off western Senegal and later but similar changes in the Congo Fan appear to reflect a southward shift of the precipitation zone over time.[710] Some drying occurred simultaneously between the Sahel and the Gulf of Guinea.[219] Some lakes in the Guineo-Congolian region dried out, while others were relatively unaffected.[778]
A general tendency towards a drier climate is observed in West Africa at the end of the AHP.[813] There, dense vegetation became progressively thinner between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago,[798] and major perturbations of the vegetation took place around 4,200 and 3,000–2,500[814][815] /2,400 calibrated years ago.[816] A brief return of moister conditions took place 4,000 years ago[703] while a substantial dry phase occurred between 3,500 and 1,700 years ago.[813] Aridity became established between 5,200 and 3,600 years ago in the Sahara.[817] In Senegal mangroves collapsed 2,500 years ago[224] and modern-type vegetation arose about 2,000 years ago.[818]
Central Africa
Farther south at the
Southern Hemisphere Africa
In the Southern Hemisphere at Lake Malawi drying began later – 1,000 years before present – as did the African humid period which there began only about 8,000 years ago.[803] Contrarily, increased water levels in Etosha Pan (Namibia) appear to relate to a southward movement of the ITCZ at the end of the AHP[824] although stalagmite growth data in Dante Cave also in Namibia has been interpreted as indicating a wetter climate during the AHP.[612] Several records indicate that 5,500 years ago, precipitation changed in an east-west dipole-like way[825] with drying in the west and moistening in the east.[826] This pattern was probably driven by shifts in atmospheric moisture transport and of rain belt width.[827]
Mechanisms
The end of the humid period appears to reflect the changes in
As precipitation decreased, so did vegetation, in turn increasing the albedo and further decreasing precipitation.[148] Furthermore, vegetation may have responded to increased variations in precipitation towards the end of the AHP[145] although this view has been challenged.[830] This could have directed sudden changes in precipitation, although this view has been cast in doubt by the observation that in many places the end of the African humid period was gradual rather than sudden.[831] Plants at higher and lower latitudes might respond differently to climate change; for example more diverse plant communities might have slowed down the end of the AHP.[90]
Other proposed mechanisms:
- Decreases in polar insolation through altered Benguela current.[211]
- Changes in the circulation of high latitude oceans may have played a role,
- There is evidence that glaciers in Tibet such as at Nanga Parbat expanded during the Holocene, especially towards the end of the AHP.[833] In climate models, increased snow and ice on the Tibetan Plateau can lead to a weakening of the Indian and African monsoons, with the weakening of the former preceding that of the latter by 1,500–2,000 years.[834]
- Decreases in sea surface temperatures of the Indian Ocean may be involved in the drying of East Africa, but there is no agreement on the temperature records from that ocean.[182] Moreover, there is no evidence of temperature changes in the Gulf of Guinea at the critical time that might explain the end of the AHP.[213]
- Additional feedback processes may have included the drying of soils and loss of vegetation after decreased rainfall,[144] which would have led to wind-driven deflation of the soils.[835]
- An expansion of sea ice around Greenland, Ellesmere Island 6,000[836] and Antarctica about 5,000 calibrated years ago may have provided another positive feedback.[837]
- The expanding dry belt of the Sahara pushed the regions of
- Climate change at high latitudes has been proposed as a cause for the end of the AHP. Specifically, about 6,000–5,000 years ago the Arctic became colder, with sea ice expanding, temperatures in Europe and off Northern Africa decreasing and the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation weakening.[213] This cooling tendency may have weakened the Tropical Easterly Jet and thus reduced the amount of precipitation falling over Africa.[840]
The orbitally-induced changes of precipitation may have been modified by the solar cycle; specifically, solar activity maxima during the ending phase of the AHP may have offset the orbital effect and thus stabilized precipitation levels, while solar activity minima compounded the orbital effects and thus induced rapid decreases in water levels of Lake Turkana.[841] At Lake Victoria on the other hand, solar variations appear to sometimes lead to drought and sometimes lead to wetness, probably due to changes in the ITCZ.[829]
Potentially human-mediated changes
Major changes in vegetation in East Africa about 2,000 years ago may have been caused by human activity, including large-scale deforestation for iron production during the Iron Age.[842] Similar changes have been observed on the Adamawa Plateau[843] (Cameroon[819]) but later dating of archaeological sites has found no correlation between human expansion in Cameroon and environmental degradation.[844] Similar rainforest degradation across Western African took place between 3,000 and 2,000 years ago[845] and the degradation is also known as "third millennium rainforest crisis".[846] Climate-mediated processes may have increased the impact of land use changes in East Africa.[551] In the Sudanian and Sahelian savannah on the other hand human activity seems to have had little impact,[296] and in Central Africa forest changes were clearly triggered by climate change with little or no evidence of anthropogenic changes.[847] The question has led to intense debate among paleoecologists and archaeologists.[848]
While humans were active in Africa during the end of the African humid period, climate models analyzed by Claussen and colleagues 1999 indicate that its end does not need any human activity as an explanation[849] although vegetation changes may have been induced by human activity[254] and grazing.[850] Later it was suggested that overgrazing may have triggered the end of the AHP around 5,500 years ago;[368] human influence might explain why the Sahara became a desert without the accompanying onset of an ice age; usually the existence of a Sahara desert is associated with the expansion of high latitude glaciers.[424] Later research has on the contrary suggested that human pastoralism may have actually delayed the end of the AHP by half a millennium[851] as moving herds of animals driven by humans seeking good pasture conditions may lead to more balanced impacts of pastures on the vegetation and thus to greater vegetation quality.[852][853] Which effects prevailed is still controversial.[395] Increased grazing has been invoked to explain the increase in dust emissions after the end of the AHP.[854] The effects of grazing on vegetation cover are context-dependent and hard to generalize over wider regions.[855]
Global
A general drying tendency is observed in the northern tropics
Conversely, in South America there is evidence that the monsoon behaves in an opposite fashion consistent with precessional forcing;[856] water levels in Lake Titicaca were low during the middle Holocene and began to rise again after the end of the AHP.[864] Likewise, a trend towards increased wetness took place in the Rocky Mountains at this time[865] although it was accompanied by a drier phase around Lake Tahoe, California and in the Western United States.[866]
Consequences
Humans
As observed in archaeological sites, settlement activity decreased in the Sahara after the AHP.[867] Population in Northern Africa decreased between 6,300 and 5,200 years ago[144][375] over less than a millennium,[835] beginning from the north.[868] In inner Arabia many settlements were abandoned about 5,300 years ago.[152] Some Neolithic people in the desert persisted for longer thanks to the exploitation of groundwater.[761]
Different human populations responded to the drying in diverse manners,
The development of irrigation systems in Arabia may have been an adaptation to the drying tendency.[465] The decreased availability of resources forced human populations to adapt,[874] in general fishing and hunting declined in favour of farming and herding.[875] However, the effects of the end of the AHP on human food production have been subject to controversy.[876]
The warm episode and coinciding drought may have triggered animal and human migration to less inhospitable areas
The Nile itself was not totally unaffected however;
In Central Africa, forests became discontinuous and
Cultural changes may also have occurred as a consequence of climate change, such as
Non-human
In the Sahara, animal and plant populations were fragmented and restricted to certain favoured areas such as moist areas of mountain ranges; this happened for example to fish and crocodiles which only persist in isolated water bodies.
The
Global climate
The shrinkage of subtropical wetlands probably led to a drop in atmospheric
A sudden increase in the amount of land-originating dust in an oceanic
In one climate model, the
Present-day situation
Presently, the African
In East Africa the monsoon leads to two rain seasons in the equatorial area, the so-called "long rains" in March–May and the "short rains" in October–November[940] when the ITCZ moves northward and southward over the region, respectively;[941] in addition to the Indian Ocean-sourced precipitation there is also Atlantic[ad]- and Congo-sourced precipitation west of the Congo Air Boundary.[933][940] In Arabia, the monsoon does not penetrate far from the Arabian Sea and some areas are under the influence of winter precipitation brought by cyclones from the Mediterranean Sea.[942] East Africa is also under the influence of monsoon circulations.[943] South Africa has both monsoonal climates, winter precipitation climates and climates without clear precipitation seasonality.[610]
Implications for future global warming
Some simulations of
The
Plans to
A greening of the Sahara on the one hand may allow
See also
Notes
- ^ The end of the AHP coincides with the maximum temperatures.[18] At Lake Ashenge, the onset of the AHP was accompanied by climatic warming[55] while in Senegal, temperatures during the AHP were 1 °C (1.8 °F) lower than today there.[56]
- Arabia, Israel[79] and the exposed seafloor of the Persian Gulf[80] where dust generation increased.[70]
- ^ Dune-covered areas.[96]
- ^ However, some lakes persisted in areas where colder temperatures had decreased evaporation.[46]
- ^ Earlier it was thought that it had started about 9,000 years ago, before it was found that it probably began earlier and was interrupted by the Younger Dryas;[72] the older hypothesis has not been entirely abandoned.[115] Some lake level curves indicate a stepwise increase of lake levels 15,000 ± 500 and 11,500–10,800 years ago, before and after the Younger Dryas.[116]
- ^ Whether it commenced first in the eastern Sahara is unclear.[117]
- ^ This was originally believed to have occurred 7,000 or 13,000 years before present,[114] but a more recent suggestion indicates a reconnection of the Nile 14,000–15,000 years ago.[125]
- ^ Lake Megachad is an expanded Lake Chad[151] which had a size comparable to the Caspian Sea[152] which is today's largest lake.[153]
- ^ The Congo Air Boundary is the point at which moisture bearing winds from the Indian Ocean collide with those from the Atlantic Ocean.[177]
- ^ In the Caribbean, a wet period has been identified in the mid-Holocene which correlated with the African wet period and was preceded and followed by drier conditions.[231]
- ^ Where the Monsoon of South Asia penetrated farther inland[15] and was more intense starting about 14,800 years ago.[109]
- ^ Salt deposits left there were mined beginning in the 16th century.[316]
- ^ Both Bir Kiseiba and Nabta Playa feature archaeological sites;[333] Nabta may have been a religious centre of regional importance.[334]
- ^ Which may have expanded into previously dry areas at the beginning of the AHP.[373]
- ^ Fesselsteine are stony artifacts, that are interpreted as tools for restraining animals.[408]
- ^ Local runoff contributed to the filling of the Fayum Depression.[201]
- Yellow Nile[488]
- ^ Assuming that they merged, which is not clearly established.[529] Tectonic or geographic changes may have been necessary to establish a connection.[530] Alternatively, water might have bypassed Baringo.[531]
- ^ A lake level drop 8,000 years ago has been related to the northward movement of the rainbelt.[564]
- ^ Which would prevent oxygen-rich waters from sinking to the deep ocean in winter, suffocating organisms on the seafloor.[599]
- ^ Except for most of the Western North Pacific according to Pausata et al. 2017.[673]
- ^ There is conflicting evidence on whether the Younger Dryas was wetter or drier in tropical southeastern Africa.[690]
- ^ Whether it also took place in Asia is unclear; perhaps it was too short to trigger climate changes recognizable in records[699] but some evidence has been found.[700]
- ^ The Dahomey Gap is a region without forests in southern Benin, Ghana and Togo[916] that forms a gap in the Guineo-Congolian forest belt.[778]
- ^ Alluvium refers to sediments deposited by running water, which have not solidified into rocks.[924]
- ^ Roughly five times larger than during the AHP.[927]
- ^ The main area of monsoon rains does not coincide with the ITCZ.[933]
- ^ The Atlantic Ocean is also the source of monsoon rainfall for the Sahel.[3]
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{{cite journal}}
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External links
- Fraedrich, Klaus F. (2013). Analysis of multistability and abrupt transitions – method studies with a global atmosphere-vegetation model simulating the end of the African Humid Period (PhD thesis). Hamburg University Hamburg. .
- Reick, Christian (27 September 2017). Effects of plant diversity on simulated climate-vegetation interaction towards the end of the African Humid Period (PhD thesis). Universität Hamburg Hamburg. .