Greenhouse gas
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. What distinguishes them from other gases is that they absorb the wavelengths of radiation that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect.[1] The Earth is warmed by sunlight, causing its surface to radiate heat, which is then mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. Without greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F),[2] rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F).[3][4]
The most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, listed in decreasing order of average global
Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (around 1750) have increased atmospheric methane concentrations by over 150% and carbon dioxide by over 50%,[12][13] up to a level not seen in over 3 million years.[14] The vast majority of carbon dioxide emissions by humans come from the combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, petroleum (including oil) and natural gas. Additional contributions come from cement manufacturing, fertilizer production, and changes in land use like deforestation.[15]: 687 [16][17] Methane emissions originate from agriculture, fossil fuel production, waste, and other sources.[18]
According to Berkeley Earth, average global surface temperature has risen by more than 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) since the pre-industrial (1850–1899) period as a result of greenhouse gas emissions. If current emission rates continue then temperature rises will surpass 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) sometime between 2040 and 2070, which is the level the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says is "dangerous".[19]
Properties
Greenhouse gases are
99% of the Earth's dry atmosphere (excluding
Radiative forcing
Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as
Within the lower atmosphere, greenhouse gases exchange thermal radiation with the surface and limit radiative heat flow away from it, which reduces the overall rate of upward radiative heat transfer.[28]: 139 [29] The increased concentration of greenhouse gases is also cooling the upper atmosphere, as it is much thinner than the lower layers, and any heat re-emitted from greenhouse gases is more likely to travel further to space than to interact with the fewer gas molecules in the upper layers. The upper atmosphere is also shrinking as the result.[30]
Global warming potential (GWP) and CO2 equivalents
Global Warming Potential (GWP) is an index to measure of how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere (or emitted to the atmosphere). The GWP makes different greenhouse gases comparable with regards to their "effectiveness in causing radiative forcing".[31]: 2232 It is expressed as a multiple of the radiation that would be absorbed by the same mass of added carbon dioxide (CO2), which is taken as a reference gas. Therefore, the GWP is one for CO2. For other gases it depends on how strongly the gas absorbs infrared thermal radiation, how quickly the gas leaves the atmosphere, and the time frame being considered.
For example, methane has a GWP over 20 years (GWP-20) of 81.2[32] meaning that, for example, a leak of a tonne of methane is equivalent to emitting 81.2 tonnes of carbon dioxide measured over 20 years. As methane has a much shorter atmospheric lifetime than carbon dioxide, its GWP is much less over longer time periods, with a GWP-100 of 27.9 and a GWP-500 of 7.95.[32]: 7SM-24
The carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e or CO2eq or CO2-e) can be calculated from the GWP. For any gas, it is the mass of CO2 that would warm the earth as much as the mass of that gas. Thus it provides a common scale for measuring the climate effects of different gases. It is calculated as GWP times mass of the other gas.Contributions of specific gases to the greenhouse effect
Overall greenhouse effect
This table shows the most important contributions to the overall greenhouse effect, without which the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F),[2] instead of around 15 °C (59 °F).[3] This table also specifies tropospheric ozone, because this gas has a cooling effect in the stratosphere, but a warming influence comparable to nitrous oxide and CFCs in the troposphere.[33]
K&T (1997)[34] | Schmidt (2010)[35] | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Contributor | Clear Sky | With Clouds | Clear Sky | With Clouds |
Water vapor | 60 | 41 | 67 | 50 |
Clouds | 31 | 25 | ||
CO2 | 26 | 18 | 24 | 19 |
Tropospheric ozone (O3) | 8 | |||
N2O + CH4 | 6 | |||
Other | 9 | 9 | 7 | |
K&T (1997) used 353 ppm CO2 and calculated 125 W/m2 total clear-sky greenhouse effect; relied on single atmospheric profile and cloud model. "With Clouds" percentages are from Schmidt (2010) interpretation of K&T (1997). |
Water vapor
Water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas overall, being responsible for 41-67% of the greenhouse effect,
Concentrations and other characteristics of greenhouse gases
Anthropogenic changes to the natural greenhouse effect are sometimes referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect.
The concentration of a greenhouse gas is typically measured in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb) by volume. A CO2 concentration of 420 ppm means that 420 out of every million air molecules is a CO2 molecule. The first 30 ppm increase in CO2 concentrations took place in about 200 years, from the start of the Industrial Revolution to 1958; however the next 90 ppm increase took place within 56 years, from 1958 to 2014.[13][45][46] Similarly, the average annual increase in the 1960s was only 37% of what it was in 2000 through 2007.[47]
Many observations are available online in a variety of
Species | Lifetime
(years) [48]: 731 |
100-yr | Mole Fraction [ppt - except as noted]a + Radiative forcing [W m−2] [B] | Concentrations
up to year 2022 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline
Year 1750 |
TAR[55]
Year 1998 |
AR4[56]
Year 2005 |
AR5[48]: 678
Year 2011 |
AR6[52]: 4–9
Year 2019 | ||||
CO2 [ppm] | [A] | 1 | 278 | 365 (1.46) | 379 (1.66) | 391 (1.82) | 410 (2.16) | |
CH4 [ppb] | 12.4 | 28 | 700 | 1,745 (0.48) | 1,774 (0.48) | 1,801 (0.48) | 1866 (0.54) | |
N2O [ppb] | 121 | 265 | 270 | 314 (0.15) | 319 (0.16) | 324 (0.17) | 332 (0.21) | |
CFC-11 | 45 | 4,660 | 0 | 268 (0.07) | 251 (0.063) | 238 (0.062) | 226 (0.066) | |
CFC-12 | 100 | 10,200 | 0 | 533 (0.17) | 538 (0.17) | 528 (0.17) | 503 (0.18) | |
CFC-13 | 640 | 13,900 | 0 | 4 (0.001) | - | 2.7 (0.0007) | 3.28 (0.0009) | cfc13 |
CFC-113 | 85 | 6,490 | 0 | 84 (0.03) | 79 (0.024) | 74 (0.022) | 70 (0.021) | |
CFC-114 | 190 | 7,710 | 0 | 15 (0.005) | - | - | 16 (0.005) | cfc114 |
CFC-115
|
1,020 | 5,860 | 0 | 7 (0.001) | - | 8.37 (0.0017) | 8.67 (0.0021) | cfc115 |
HCFC-22
|
11.9 | 5,280 | 0 | 132 (0.03) | 169 (0.033) | 213 (0.0447) | 247 (0.0528) | |
HCFC-141b
|
9.2 | 2,550 | 0 | 10 (0.001) | 18 (0.0025) | 21.4 (0.0034) | 24.4 (0.0039) | |
HCFC-142b
|
17.2 | 5,020 | 0 | 11 (0.002) | 15 (0.0031) | 21.2 (0.0040) | 22.3 (0.0043) | |
CH3CCl3 | 5 | 160 | 0 | 69 (0.004) | 19 (0.0011) | 6.32 (0.0004) | 1.6 (0.0001) | |
CCl4 | 26 | 1,730 | 0 | 102 (0.01) | 93 (0.012) | 85.8 (0.0146) | 78 (0.0129) | |
HFC-23
|
222 | 12,400 | 0 | 14 (0.002) | 18 (0.0033) | 24 (0.0043) | 32.4 (0.0062) | |
HFC-32
|
5.2 | 677 | 0 | - | - | 4.92 (0.0005) | 20 (0.0022) | |
HFC-125
|
28.2 | 3,170 | 0 | - | 3.7 (0.0009) | 9.58 (0.0022) | 29.4 (0.0069) | |
HFC-134a
|
13.4 | 1,300 | 0 | 7.5 (0.001) | 35 (0.0055) | 62.7 (0.0100) | 107.6 (0.018) | |
HFC-143a
|
47.1 | 4,800 | 0 | - | - | 12.0 (0.0019) | 24 (0.0040) | |
HFC-152a
|
1.5 | 138 | 0 | 0.5 (0.0000) | 3.9 (0.0004) | 6.4 (0.0006) | 7.1 (0.0007) | |
CF4 (PFC-14)
|
50,000 | 6,630 | 40 | 80 (0.003) | 74 (0.0034) | 79 (0.0040) | 85.5 (0.0051) | |
C2F6 (PFC-116) | 10,000 | 11,100 | 0 | 3 (0.001) | 2.9 (0.0008) | 4.16 (0.0010) | 4.85 (0.0013) | |
SF6 | 3,200 | 23,500 | 0 | 4.2 (0.002) | 5.6 (0.0029) | 7.28 (0.0041) | 9.95 (0.0056) | |
SO2F2 | 36 | 4,090 | 0 | - | - | 1.71 (0.0003) | 2.5 (0.0005) | |
NF3 | 500 | 16,100 | 0 | - | - | 0.9 (0.0002) | 2.05 (0.0004) |
a Mole fractions: μmol/mol = ppm = parts per million (106); nmol/mol = ppb = parts per billion (109); pmol/mol = ppt = parts per trillion (1012).
A The IPCC states that "no single atmospheric lifetime can be given" for CO2.[48]: 731 This is mostly due to the rapid growth and cumulative magnitude of the disturbances to Earth's carbon cycle by the geologic extraction and burning of fossil carbon.[57] As of year 2014, fossil CO2 emitted as a theoretical 10 to 100 GtC pulse on top of the existing atmospheric concentration was expected to be 50% removed by land vegetation and ocean sinks in less than about a century, as based on the projections of coupled models referenced in the AR5 assessment.[58] A substantial fraction (20-35%) was also projected to remain in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia, where fractional persistence increases with pulse size.[59][60]
B Values are relative to year 1750. AR6 reports the effective radiative forcing which includes effects of rapid adjustments in the atmosphere and at the surface.[61]
Factors affecting concentrations
Atmospheric concentrations are determined by the balance between sources (emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the gas from the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound or absorption by bodies of water).[62]: 512
Airborne fraction
The proportion of an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is the "airborne fraction" (AF). The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year's total emissions. The annual airborne fraction for CO2 had been stable at 0.45 for the past six decades even as the emissions have been increasing. This means that the other 0.55 of emitted CO2 is absorbed by the land and atmosphere carbon sinks within the first year of an emission.[57] In the high-emission scenarios, the effectiveness of carbon sinks will be lower, increasing the atmospheric fraction of CO2 even though the raw amount of emissions absorbed will be higher than in the present.[63]: 746
Atmospheric lifetime
Major greenhouse gases are well mixed and take many years to leave the atmosphere.[65]
The atmospheric lifetime of a greenhouse gas refers to the time required to restore equilibrium following a sudden increase or decrease in its concentration in the atmosphere. Individual atoms or molecules may be lost or deposited to sinks such as the soil, the oceans and other waters, or vegetation and other biological systems, reducing the excess to background concentrations. The average time taken to achieve this is the
can also be defined as the ratio of the mass (in kg) of X in the box to its removal rate, which is the sum of the flow of X out of the box (), chemical loss of X (), and deposition of X () (all in kg/s):
- .[66]
If input of this gas into the box ceased, then after time , its concentration would decrease by about 63%.
Changes to any of these variables can alter the atmospheric lifetime of a greenhouse gas. For instance, methane's atmospheric lifetime is estimated to have been lower in the 19th century than now, but to have been higher in the second half of the 20th century than after 2000.[64] Carbon dioxide has an even more variable lifetime, which cannot be specified down to a single number.[67][43][20]: 2237 Scientists instead say that while the first 10% of carbon dioxide's airborne fraction (not counting the ~50% absorbed by land and ocean sinks within the emission's first year) is removed "quickly", the vast majority of the airborne fraction - 80% - lasts for "centuries to millennia". The remaining 10% stays for tens of thousands of years. In some models, this longest-lasting fraction is as large as 30%.[68][69]
Sources
Natural sources
Most greenhouse gases have both natural and human-caused sources. An exception are purely human-produced synthetic halocarbons which have no natural sources. During the pre-industrial
: 115Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities
The major anthropogenic (human origin) sources of greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N
2O), methane, three groups of fluorinated gases (
Monitoring
Greenhouse gas monitoring involves the direct measurement of atmospheric concentrations and direct and indirect measurement of greenhouse gas emissions. Indirect methods calculate emissions of greenhouse gases based on related metrics such as fossil fuel extraction.[57]
There are several different methods of measuring carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, including
The Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI) is defined by atmospheric scientists at
Data networks
Removal from the atmosphere
Natural processes
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily through photosynthesis and enters the terrestrial and oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the atmosphere into bodies of water (ocean, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules and forms carbonic acid, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.[87]
Negative emissions
A number of technologies remove greenhouse gases emissions from the atmosphere. Most widely analyzed are those that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, either to geologic formations such as
During geologic time scales
Estimates in 2023 found that the current carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere may be the highest it has been in the last 14 million years.[94] However the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report estimated similar levels 3 to 3.3 million years ago in the mid-Pliocene warm period. This period can be a proxy for likely climate outcomes with current levels of CO2.[95]: Figure 2.34
Carbon dioxide is believed to have played an important effect in regulating Earth's temperature throughout its 4.54 billion year history. Early in the Earth's life, scientists have found evidence of liquid water indicating a warm world even though the Sun's output is believed to have only been 70% of what it is today. Higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the early Earth's atmosphere might help explain thisHistory of discovery
In the late 19th century, scientists experimentally discovered that N
2 and O
2 do not absorb infrared radiation (called, at that time, "dark radiation"), while water (both as true vapor and condensed in the form of microscopic droplets suspended in clouds) and CO2 and other poly-atomic gaseous molecules do absorb infrared radiation.
During the late 20th century, a
Other planets
Greenhouse gases exist in many atmospheres, creating greenhouse effects on Mars, Titan and particularly in the thick atmosphere of Venus.[104] While Venus has been described as the ultimate end state of runaway greenhouse effect, such a process would have virtually no chance of occurring from any increases in greenhouse gas concentrations caused by humans,[105] as the Sun's brightness is too low and it would likely need to increase by some tens of percents, which will take a few billion years.[106]
See also
- Carbon accounting
- Carbon budget
- Climate change feedback
- Greenhouse gas monitoring
- Greenhouse gas inventory
- List of refrigerants
References
- ISBN 9781009157896.
- ^ a b Qiancheng Ma (March 1998). "Science Briefs: Greenhouse Gases: Refining the Role of Carbon Dioxide". NASA GISS. Archived from the original on 12 January 2005. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2019 – via Zenodo.
- ^ a b Le Treut, H., R. Somerville, U. Cubasch, Y. Ding, C. Mauritzen, A. Mokssit, T. Peterson and M. Prather, 2007: "Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change". In: "Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change". [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1 August 2016. Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
- ^ "Inside the Earth's invisible blanket". sequestration.org. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
- ^ Gavin Schmidt (1 October 2010). "Taking the Measure of the Greenhouse Effect". NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies - Science Briefs.
- ^ "NASA Science Mission Directorate article on the water cycle". Nasascience.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 16 October 2010.
- ^ "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 12 January 2016.
- ^ "Climate Change Indicators: Greenhouse Gases". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 16 December 2015.
Carbon dioxide's lifetime cannot be represented with a single value because the gas is not destroyed over time, but instead moves among different parts of the ocean–atmosphere–land system. Some of the excess carbon dioxide is absorbed quickly (for example, by the ocean surface), but some will remain in the atmosphere for thousands of years, due in part to the very slow process by which carbon is transferred to ocean sediments.
- ^ "Understanding methane emissions". International Energy Agency.
- ^ "Understanding methane emissions". International Energy Agency.
The concentration of methane in the atmosphere is currently over two-and-a-half times greater than its pre-industrial levels
- ^ a b "Carbon dioxide now more than 50% higher than pre-industrial levels". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 3 June 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
- ^ Lindsey, Rebecca. "Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide". climate.gov. Archived from the original on 24 June 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2020.
- ^ Canadell, J.G., P.M.S. Monteiro, M.H. Costa, L. Cotrim da Cunha, P.M. Cox, A.V. Eliseev, S. Henson, M. Ishii, S. Jaccard, C. Koven, A. Lohila, P.K. Patra, S. Piao, J. Rogelj, S. Syampungani, S. Zaehle, and K. Zickfeld, 2021: Chapter 5: Global Carbon and other Biogeochemical Cycles and Feedbacks. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 673–816, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.007.
- ^ "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 12 January 2016. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
The burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions.
- ^ "AR4 SYR Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers – 2 Causes of change". ipcc.ch. Archived from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
- ^ "Global Methane Tracker 2023". International Energy Agency.
- ^ "Analysis: When might the world exceed 1.5C and 2C of global warming?". Carbon Brief. 4 December 2020. Archived from the original on 6 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
- ^ a b c d IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0470943410. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
- PMID 30302408.
- S2CID 128823108.
- ^ "Which Gases Are Greenhouse Gases?". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
- S2CID 128823108.
- ^ "Climate Change Indicators in the United States - Greenhouse Gases". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2016. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 5 September 2020..
- ^ "Climate Change Indicators in the United States - Climate Forcing". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2016. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 5 September 2020.[1] Archived 21 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-0-12-732951-2.
- .
- ^ Hatfield, Miles (30 June 2021). "NASA Satellites See Upper Atmosphere Cooling and Contracting Due to Climate Change". NASA.
- ^ IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
- ^ IPCC, 2021, p. 7SM-24.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1 August 2016.
- ^ .
- ^ doi:10.1029/2010JD014287, archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2011, D20106. Web page Archived 4 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "NASA: Climate Forcings and Global Warming". 14 January 2009. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
- ^ "AGU Water Vapor in the Climate System". Eso.org. 27 April 1995. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
- ISSN 1056-3466.
- ISBN 978-0787690823.
- ^ "The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI)". NOAA.gov. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Spring 2023. Archived from the original on 24 May 2023.
- ^ "Annual Greenhouse Gas Index". U.S. Global Change Research Program. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- ^ NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory/Earth System Research Laboratories. Archivedfrom the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- ^ a b "Appendix 8.A" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report. p. 731. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
- NOAAGlobal Monitoring Laboratory/Earth System Research Laboratories.
- ISBN 978-1119055327.
- ^ "Full Mauna Loa CO2 record". Earth System Research Laboratories. 2005. Archived from the original on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f "Chapter 8". AR5 Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis.
- ^ "Global Monitoring Laboratory". NOAA Earth System Research Laboratories. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
- ^ "World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases". World Meteorological Organization Global Atmosphere Watch Programme and Japan Meteorological Agency. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
- ^ "Advanced Global Atmospheric Gas Experiment". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
- ^ a b Dentener F. J.; B. Hall; C. Smith, eds. (9 August 2021), "Annex III: Tables of historical and projected well-mixed greenhouse gas mixing ratios and effective radiative forcing of all climate forcers" (PDF), Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press
- ^ "Long-term global trends of atmospheric trace gases". NOAA Earth System Research Laboratories. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
- ^ "AGAGE Data and Figures". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
- ^ "Chapter 6". TAR Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. p. 358.
- ^ "Chapter 2". AR4 Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. p. 141.
- ^ ISSN 1866-3516.
- ^ "Figure 8.SM.4" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report - Supplemental Material. p. 8SM-16.
- hdl:2268/12933.
- .
- .
- ^ Denman, K.L., G. Brasseur, A. Chidthaisong, P. Ciais, P.M. Cox, R.E. Dickinson, D. Hauglustaine, C. Heinze, E. Holland, D. Jacob, U. Lohmann, S Ramachandran, P.L. da Silva Dias, S.C. Wofsy and X. Zhang, 2007: Chapter 7: Couplings Between Changes in the Climate System and Biogeochemistry. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
- ^ Canadell, J. G.; Monteiro, P. M. S.; Costa, M. H.; Cotrim da Cunha, L.; Ishii, M.; Jaccard, S.; Cox, P. M.; Eliseev, A. V.; Henson, S.; Koven, C.; Lohila, A.; Patra, P. K.; Piao, S.; Rogelj, J.; Syampungani, S.; Zaehle, S.; Zickfeld, K. (2021). "Global Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles and Feedbacks" (PDF). IPCC Sixth Assessment Report: Working Group 1.
- ^ .
- ^ Betts (2001). "6.3 Well-mixed Greenhouse Gases". Chapter 6 Radiative Forcing of Climate Change. Working Group I: The Scientific Basis IPCC Third Assessment Report – Climate Change 2001. UNEP/GRID-Arendal – Publications. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2010.
- ^ ISBN 978-0691001852. Archived from the originalon 2 September 2011.
- ^ "How long will global warming last?". RealClimate. 15 March 2005. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2012.
- MITClimate Portal. 17 January 2023.
- ^ Atkinson, Kate (19 July 2023). "How long will global warming last?". Australian Associated Press.
- ^ "Chapter 3, IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios, 2000" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2000. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2010.
- ^ Dhakal, S., J.C. Minx, F.L. Toth, A. Abdel-Aziz, M.J. Figueroa Meza, K. Hubacek, I.G.C. Jonckheere, Yong-Gun Kim, G.F. Nemet, S. Pachauri, X.C. Tan, T. Wiedmann, 2022: Chapter 2: Emissions Trends and Drivers. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.004
- ^ "Water Vapor". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
- ^ Johnston, Chris; Milman, Oliver; Vidal, John (15 October 2016). "Climate change: global deal reached to limit use of hydrofluorocarbons". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
- ^ "Climate change: 'Monumental' deal to cut HFCs, fastest growing greenhouse gases". BBC News. 15 October 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
- ^ "Nations, Fighting Powerful Refrigerant That Warms Planet, Reach Landmark Deal". The New York Times. 15 October 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
- ISBN 978-9289308847, archived from the originalon 6 August 2011
- ^ Montreal Protocol
- .
- PMID 20536268.
- .
- ^ LuAnn Dahlman (14 August 2020). "Climate change: annual greenhouse gas index". NOAA Climate.gov science news & Information for a climate smart nation. Archived from the original on 16 August 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory/Earth System Research Laboratories. Archivedfrom the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- ^ "NOAA CCGG page Retrieved 2 March 2016". Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
- ^ WDCGG webpage Archived 6 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2 March 2016
- ^ RAMCES webpage[permanent dead link] Retrieved 2 March 2016
- ^ "CDIAC CO2 page Retrieved 9 February 2016". Archived from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
- ^ "Many Planets, One Earth // Section 4: Carbon Cycling and Earth's Climate". Many Planets, One Earth. 4. Archived from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ISSN 1866-3516.
- PMID 11030643.
- ^ Riebeek, Holli (16 June 2011). "The Carbon Cycle". Earth Observatory. NASA. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
- ^ a b "Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty". The Royal Society. 2009. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2009.
- ^ Fisher, B.S., N. Nakicenovic, K. Alfsen, J. Corfee Morlot, F. de la Chesnaye, J.-Ch. Hourcade, K. Jiang, M. Kainuma, E. La Rovere, A. Matysek, A. Rana, K. Riahi, R. Richels, S. Rose, D. van Vuuren, R. Warren, 2007: Chapter 3: Issues related to mitigation in the long term context, In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
- PMID 34565221.
- ^ AHMED, Issam. "Current carbon dioxide levels last seen 14 million years ago". phys.org. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
- ^ Gulev, S.K., P.W. Thorne, J. Ahn, F.J. Dentener, C.M. Domingues, S. Gerland, D. Gong, D.S. Kaufman, H.C. Nnamchi, J. Quaas, J.A. Rivera, S. Sathyendranath, S.L. Smith, B. Trewin, K. von Schuckmann, and R.S. Vose, 2021: Chapter 2: Changing State of the Climate System. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 287–422, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.004.
- (PDF) from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
- PMID 11543544.
- ^ "Coal Consumption Affecting Climate". Rodney and Otamatea Times, Waitemata and Kaipara Gazette. Warkworth, New Zealand. 14 August 1912. p. 7. Text was earlier published in Popular Mechanics, March 1912, p. 341.
- (PDF) from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- doi:10.1086/121158.
- ^ Easterbrook, Steve (18 August 2015). "Who first coined the term "Greenhouse Effect"?". Serendipity. Archived from the original on 13 November 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
- .
- .
- ^ Eddie Schwieterman. "Comparing the Greenhouse Effect on Earth, Mars, Venus, and Titan: Present Day and through Time" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 January 2015.
- ^ Scoping of the IPCC 5th Assessment Report Cross Cutting Issues (PDF). Thirty-first Session of the IPCC Bali, 26–29 October 2009 (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 November 2009. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- PMID 24043864.
External links
- Media related to Greenhouse gases at Wikimedia Commons
- Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), U.S. Department of Energy, retrieved 26 July 2020
- Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI) from NOAA
- Atmospheric spectra of GHGs and other trace gases Archived 25 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine