Grigory Potemkin
Nikolay Saltykov | |
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Personal details | |
Born | ) | 11 October 1739 (N.S.)
Prince Grigory Aleksandrovich[c] Potemkin-Tauricheski[d][e] (October 11 [O.S. September 30] 1739[nb 1] – October 16 [O.S. October 5] 1791) was a Russian military leader, statesman, nobleman, and favourite of Catherine the Great. He died during negotiations over the Treaty of Jassy, which ended a war with the Ottoman Empire that he had overseen.
Potemkin was born into a family of middle-income noble landowners. He first attracted Catherine's favor for helping in her 1762 coup, then distinguished himself as a military commander in the
In 1775, Potemkin became the governor-general of Russia's new southern provinces. An absolute ruler, he worked to colonize the wild
His rule in the south is associated with the (probably mythical) "Potemkin village", a ruse involving the construction of painted façades to mimic real villages, full of happy, well-fed people, for visiting officials to see. Potemkin was known for his love of women, gambling and material wealth. He oversaw the construction of many historically significant buildings, including the Tauride Palace in Saint Petersburg.
Biography
Early life
A distant relative of the Muscovite diplomat Pyotr Potemkin (1617–1700), Grigory was born in the village of Chizhovo near Smolensk into a family of middle-income noble landowners. His father, Alexander Potemkin, was a decorated war veteran. His mother Daria Vasilievna Kondyreva (1704–1780) was "good-looking, capable and intelligent", though their marriage proved ultimately unhappy.[6][7] Potemkin received his first name in honour of his father's cousin Grigory Matveevich Kizlovsky, a civil servant who became his godfather. Historian Simon Montefiore has suggested that Kizlovsky fathered Potemkin,[8] who became the centre of attention, heir to the village and the only son among six children. As the son of an (albeit petty) noble family, he grew up with the expectation that he would serve the Russian Empire.[9]
After Alexander died in 1746, Daria took charge of the family. In order to achieve a career for her son, and aided by Kizlovsky, the family moved to Moscow, where Potemkin enrolled at a
Having graduated from the university school, Potemkin became one of the first students to enroll at the university itself. Talented in both Greek and
After the coup, Catherine singled out Potemkin for reward and ensured his promotion to second lieutenant. Though Potemkin was among those guarding the ex-
Courtier and general
Although Catherine had not yet taken Potemkin as a lover, it seems likely that she passively—if not actively—encouraged his flirtatious behaviour, including his regular practice of kissing her hand and declaring his love for her: without encouragement, Potemkin could have expected trouble from the Orlovs (Catherine's lover Grigory and his four brothers) who dominated court.[17] Potemkin entered Catherine's circle of advisers, and in 1762 took his only foreign assignment, to Sweden, bearing news of the coup. On his return, he was appointed Procurator, and won a reputation as a lover. Under unclear circumstances, Potemkin then lost his left eye and fell into a depression. His confidence shattered, he withdrew from court, becoming something of a hermit.[18]
Eighteen months later, Potemkin reappeared, probably summoned by Catherine. He became an army
The only way I can express my gratitude to Your Majesty is to shed my blood for Your glory. This war provides an excellent opportunity for this and I cannot live in idleness. Allow me now, Merciful Sovereign, to appeal at Your Majesty's feet and request Your Majesty to send me to... the front in whatever rank Your Majesty wishes... [to serve] just for the duration of the war.
— Potemkin, Correspondence, dated May 1769.[20]
Potemkin served as Major-General of the
Back at the front, Potemkin won more military acclaim, but then fell ill; rejecting medicine, he recovered only slowly. After a lull in hostilities in 1772 his movements are unclear, but it seems that he returned to St. Petersburg where he is recorded, perhaps apocryphally, to have been one of Catherine's closest advisers.
Favorite of Catherine II
Potemkin returned to court in January 1774 expecting to walk into Catherine's arms. The political situation, however, had become complex.
Several weeks later he had usurped Vasilchikov as Catherine's
The frequent letters the pair sent to each other survive, revealing their affair to be one of "laughter, sex, mutually admired intelligence, and power".
In quick succession he won appointment as Governor-General of
That Catherine and Potemkin married is "almost certain", according to
By late 1775, their relationship was changing, though it is uncertain exactly when Catherine took a secretary, Pyotr Zavadovsky, as a lover.[41] On 2 January 1776, Zavadovsky became Adjutant-General to the Empress (he became her official favorite in May) and Potemkin moved to command the St. Petersburg troop division.[42] Signs of a potential "golden adieu" for Potemkin include his 1776 appointment, at Catherine's request, to the title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire.[43][44]
Though he was "bored" with Catherine, the separation was relatively peaceful. The Prince was sent on a tour to
Though the love affair appeared to end, Catherine and Potemkin maintained a particularly close friendship, which continued to dominate their lives. Most of the time this meant a love triangle in the court between the pair and Catherine's latest swain.[47][48] The favorite had a high-pressure position: after Zavadovsky came Semyon Zorich (May 1777 to May 1778), Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov (May 1778 to late 1778), Alexander Lanskoy (1780–1784), Alexander Yermolov (1785–1786), Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov (1786–1789) and Platon Zubov (1789–1796). Potemkin checked candidates for their suitability; it also appears that he tended to the relationships and "filled in" between favorites.[49] Potemkin also arranged for Catherine to walk in on Rimsky-Korsakov in a compromising position with another woman.[50] During Catherine's (comparatively) long relationship with Lanskoy, Potemkin was particularly able to turn his attentions to other matters.[51] He embarked upon a long series of other romances, including with his own nieces, one of whom may have borne him a child.[52]
Diplomat
Potemkin's first task during this period was foreign policy. An
Elsewhere, Potemkin's scheme to develop a Russian presence in the rapidly disintegrating state of
By July 1783, Potemkin had engineered the peaceful annexation of Crimea and Kuban, capitalizing on the fact that Britain and France were fighting elsewhere.[61] The Kingdom of Georgia accepted Russian protection a few days later with the Treaty of Georgievsk searching for protection against Persia's aim to reestablish its suzerainty over Georgia; the Karabakh Khanate of Persia initially looked as though it might also, but eventually declined Russian help. Exhausted, Potemkin collapsed into a fever he barely survived. Catherine rewarded him with one hundred thousand roubles, which he used to construct the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg.[60]
Governor-General and city builder
Potemkin returned to St. Petersburg in November 1783 and was promoted to Field Marshal when Crimea was formally annexed the following February. He also became President of the College of War.
The "criminal"[
Builder
Potemkin then embarked on a period of city-founding. Construction started at his first effort,
Potemkin's Black Sea Fleet was a massive undertaking for its time. By 1787, the British ambassador reported twenty-seven
In 1784 Alexander Lanskoy died and Potemkin was needed at court to console the grieving Catherine.
"Potemkin village"
The notion of the Potemkin village, coined in German by critical biographer Georg von Helbig as German: Potemkinsche Dörfer, arose from Catherine's visit to the south. Critics accused Potemkin of using painted façades to fool Catherine into thinking that the area was far richer than it was. Thousands of peasants were alleged to have been stage-managed for this purpose. Certainly, Potemkin had arranged for Catherine to see the best he had to offer, organizing numerous exotic excursions, and at least two cities' officials concealed poverty by building false houses. It seems unlikely that the fraud approached the scale alleged. The Prince of Ligne, a member of the Austrian delegation, who had explored on his own during the trip, later proclaimed the allegations to be false.[83]
Commander-in-Chief
Potemkin remained in the south, gradually sinking into depression. His inactivity was problematic, given that he was now Russia's commander-in-chief and, in August 1787, another Russo-Turkish war broke out, the second of Potemkin's lifetime. His opponents were anxious to reclaim the lands they had lost in the last war, and they were under pressure from Prussia, Britain and Sweden to take a hostile attitude towards Russia. Potemkin's bluster had probably contributed to the hostility, either deliberately or accidentally. Either way, his creation of the new fleet and Catherine's trip to the south had certainly not helped matters. In the center, Potemkin had his own Yekaterinoslav Army, while to the west lay the smaller Ukraine Army under the command of Field-Marshal Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky. On water he had the Black Sea Fleet, and Potemkin was also responsible for coordinating military actions with Russia's Austrian allies.[84]
Potemkin and Catherine agreed on a primarily defensive strategy until the spring. Though the Turks were repelled in early skirmishes against the Russian fortress at Kinburn, news of the loss of Potemkin's beloved fleet during a storm sent him into a deep depression. A week later, and after kind words from Catherine, he was rallied by the news that the fleet was not destroyed, but only damaged. General Alexander Suvorov won an important victory at Kinburn in early October. With winter now approaching, Potemkin was confident the port would be safe until the spring.[85]
Turning his attention elsewhere, Potemkin established his headquarters in
In early summer 1788, fighting intensified as Potemkin's forces won their naval confrontation with the Turks with few losses, and began the siege of Ochakov, a Turkish stronghold and the main Russian war aim. Less promising was that St. Petersburg, exposed after Russia's best forces departed for Crimea, was now under threat from Sweden in the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–90.[88] Potemkin refused to write regularly with news of the war in the south, compounding Catherine's anxiety.[89]
Potemkin argued with Suvorov and Catherine herself, who were both anxious to assault Ochakov, which the Turks twice managed to supply by sea. Finally, on 6 December, the assault began and four hours later the city was taken, a coup for Potemkin. Nearly ten thousand Turks had been killed at a cost of (only) two-and-a-half thousand Russians.[90] Catherine wrote that "you [Potemkin] have shut the mouths of everyone... [and can now] show magnanimity to your blind and empty-headed critics".[91]
Potemkin then visited the naval yard at Vitovka, founded Nikolayev, and traveled on to St. Petersburg, arriving in February 1789.[90] In May he left once more for the front, having agreed on contingency plans with Catherine should Russia be forced into war with either Prussia or the upstart Poland, which had recently successfully demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from its territory. (Catherine herself was just about to change favorites for the final time, replacing Dmitriev-Mamonov with Platon Zubov.) Back on the Turkish front, Potemkin advanced towards the fortress of Bender on the Dniester river.[92]
The summer and autumn of 1789 saw numerous victories against the Turks,
In July 1790 the Russian Baltic Fleet was defeated by the Swedish at the
After two years he returned to St. Petersburg to face the threat of war against an Anglo-Prussian coalition in addition to the war with Turkey. His return was widely celebrated with the "Carnival of Prince Potemkin". The Prince came across as polite and charming though his latest mistress, Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, appeared sidelined,[nb 4][101] and Potemkin found himself embroiled in court intrigue whilst trying to force Zubov out. Catherine and Potemkin fought over military strategy; the Empress wanted no compromise, while Potemkin wanted to buy time by appeasing the Prussians.[102][103]
Fortunately for the Russians, the Anglo-Prussian alliance collapsed and a British ultimatum that Russia should accept the status quo ante bellum was withdrawn. In this way, the threat of a wider war receded.
Success on the Turkish front continued, mostly attributable to Potemkin. He now had the opportunity to confront the Turks and dictate a peace, but that would mean leaving Catherine. His procrastination soured Catherine's attitude towards him, a situation compounded by Potemkin's choice of the married Princess Paskovia Adreevna Golitsyna (née Shuvalova) as his latest mistress.[105] In the end, Potemkin was given the requisite authority to negotiate with the Turks (and, afterwards, to pursue his Polish ambitions), and dispatched by Catherine back to the south. She sent a note after him, reading "Goodbye my friend, I kiss you".[106]
Death
Potemkin fell ill in the fever-ridden city of
Potemkin was embalmed, and a funeral was held for him in Iași. Eight days after his death, he was buried. Catherine was distraught and ordered social life in St. Petersburg be put on hold.
Potemkin had used the state treasury as a personal bank, preventing the resolution of his financial affairs to this day. Catherine purchased the Tauride Palace and his art collection from his estate, and paid off his debts. Consequently, he left a relative fortune.[112]
Catherine's son Paul, who succeeded to the throne in 1796, attempted to undo as many of Potemkin's reforms as possible. The Tauride Palace was turned into a barracks, and the city of Gregoripol, which had been named in Potemkin's honor, was renamed.[114]
Potemkin's grave survived a destruction order issued by Paul and was eventually displayed by the Bolsheviks. His remains appeared to lie in his tomb at St. Catherine's Cathedral in Kherson. The exact whereabouts of some of his internal organs, including his heart and brain first kept at Golia Monastery in Iași, remain unknown.[115] Pro-Russian officials during the Russian invasion of Ukraine said that his remains were taken from his tomb and transported to Russia.[116] This was the ninth time that Potemkin's remains were moved.[117]
Personality and reputation
Potemkin "exuded both menace and welcome"; he was arrogant, demanding of his courtiers, and very changeable in his moods, but also fascinating, warm, and kind. It was generally agreed among his female companions that he was "amply endowed with 'sex appeal'".[118]
Louis Philippe, comte de Ségur described him as "colossal like Russia", "an inconceivable mixture of grandeur and pettiness, laziness and activity, bravery and timidity, ambition and insouciance". The internal contrast was evident throughout his life: he frequented both church and numerous orgies, for example. In Ségur's view, onlookers had a tendency to unjustly attribute to Catherine alone the successes of the period and to Potemkin the failures. An eccentric workaholic, Potemkin was vain and a great lover of jewelry (a taste he did not always remember to pay for),[citation needed] but he disliked sycophancy and was sensitive about his appearance, particularly his lost eye. He only agreed to have portraits made of him twice, in 1784 and again in 1791, both times by Johann Baptist von Lampi and from an angle which disguised his injury.[119] Potemkin was often noted for his uncouth behavior, most notably his unscrupulous sexual liaisons and biting his nails.[120] Potemkin's nail-biting was so persistent that it was frequently noticed by courtiers and guests, and resulted in hangnail.[119]
It is possible that Potemkin was affected by bipolar disorder. His highs and lows, his material and sexual excesses, his impulsive whims, his energy and lethargy, and his depressive spells suggest some kind of bipolar disorder. In a time that was not aware of mental illness, Potemkin, and, it must be said, the people in his life such as Catherine, suffered from this lack of understanding.[121]
Potemkin was an intellectual. The Prince of Ligne noted that Potemkin had "natural abilities [and] an excellent memory". He was interested in history, generally knowledgeable, and loved the classical music of the period, as well as opera. He liked all food, both peasant and fine, his favorites included roast beef and potatoes, and his anglophilia meant that English gardens were prepared wherever he went.[119] A practical politician, his political ideas were "quintessentially Russian", and he believed in the superiority of the Tsarist autocracy. He once described the French revolutionaries as "a pack of madmen".[122] One evening, at the height of his power, Potemkin declared to his dinner guests:[123]
Everything I have ever wanted, I have... I wanted high rank, I have it; I wanted medals, I have them; I loved gambling, I have lost vast sums; I liked giving parties, I've given magnificent ones; I enjoy building houses, I've raised palaces; I liked buying estates, I have many; I adore diamonds and beautiful things – no individual in Europe owns rarer or more exquisite stones. In a word, all my passions have been sated. I am entirely happy!
Ultimately, Potemkin proved a controversial figure. Criticisms include "laziness, corruption, debauchery, indecision, extravagance, falsification, military incompetence, and disinformation on a vast scale", but supporters hold that "the sybaritism [devotion to luxury] and extravagance... are truly justified", stressing Potemkin's "intelligence, force of personality, spectacular vision, courage, generosity and great achievements".[124] Although not a military genius, he was "seriously able" in military matters.[124] Potemkin's contemporary Ségur was quick to criticise, writing that "nobody thought out a plan more swiftly [than Potemkin], carried it out more slowly and abandoned it more easily".[125] Another contemporary, the Scotsman Sir John Sinclair, added that Potemkin had "great abilities" but was ultimately a "worthless and dangerous character".[126] Russian opponents such as Semyon Vorontsov agreed: the Prince had "lots of intelligence, intrigue and credit", but lacked "knowledge, application and virtue".[126]
Family
Potemkin had no legitimate descendants, though it is probable he had illegitimate issue. Four of his five sisters lived long enough to bear children,[127] but only the daughters of his sister Marfa Elena (sometimes rendered as 'Helen') received Potemkin's special attention. The five unmarried Engelhardt sisters arrived in court in 1775 on the direction of their recently widowed father Vassily.[128] Legend suggests Potemkin soon seduced many of the girls, one of whom was twelve or thirteen at the time. An affair with the third eldest, Varvara, can be verified; after that had subsided, Potemkin formed close—and probably amorous—relationships successively with Alexandra, the second eldest, and Ekaterina, the fifth.[129]
Potemkin also had influential relatives. Potemkin's sister Maria, for example, married Russian senator
Legacy
Despite attempts by Paul I to play down Potemkin's role in Russian history, his name found its way into numerous items of common parlance:
- A century after Potemkin's death, the
- The name of the giant seaside staircase in The Battleship Potemkin, eventually became known as the Potemkin Stairs.
- The phrase Potemkin village entered common usage in Russia and globally, despite its fictional origin.[133]
- The Grigory Potemkin Republican Cadet Corps is a specialized institution in the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Transnistria that is named after the Russian prince.[134]
Notes
- ^ 1787–1789
- ^ 1789–1791
- anglicizedas Alexandrovich
- ^ Also spelled Potyomkin-Tavricheskiy.
- ^ /pəˈtɛmkɪn/ pə-TEM-kin,[2] also UK: /pɒˈ-/ po-,[3] US: /poʊˈ-, pəˈtjɔːmkɪn/ poh-, pə-TYAWM-kin;[3][4][5] Russian: Князь Григорий Александрович Потёмкин-Таврический, IPA: [ɡrʲɪˈɡorʲɪj ɐlʲɪkˈsandrəvʲɪtɕ pɐˈtʲɵmkʲɪn tɐˈvrʲitɕɪskʲɪj].
Alternatives to romanization:- • First name: Grigoriy, Grigorij, Grigorii, Grigoriĭ;
- • Patronymic: Aleksandrovič;
- • Family name: Potëmkin, Potjomkin;
- • Victory title: Tavrichesky, Tavričesky, Tavričeskiy, Tavricheskij, Tavričeskij, Tavricheskii, Tavričeskii, Tavricheskiĭ, Tavričeskiĭ.
Footnotes
- ^ a b A number of dates as late as 1742 have been found on record; the veracity of any one is unlikely to be proved. This is his "official" birth-date as given on his tombstone.
- ^ A previous town with the same founded in 1775 but in a badly chosen location was duly renamed Novomskovsk.
- ^ Under the terms of the surrender, the garrison was allowed to leave unharmed, but three hundred guns were captured by the Russians in the process.
- ^ Dolgorukaya was soon replaced by a new mistress, Sophie (de) Witte (nicknamed "The Beautiful Greek"), who was renowned in the courts of Europe at that time and had an accommodating husband.
- ^ The talks, which were continued by Catherine's secretary and foreign minister Alexander Bezborodko, led to the Treaty of Jassy, in which Russia annexed a significant amount of land from the Ottomans.
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- ^ "Potemkin". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 26 May 2021.
- ^ a b "Potemkin". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
- ^ "Potemkin". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
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- ^ Montefiore 2001, pp. 13–16
- ^ a b Soloveytchik 1938, p. 40
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- ^ a b Montefiore 2001, pp. 24–30
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- ^ Drevni͡ai͡a i novai͡a Rossii͡a. Historical Illustrated Monthly. Vol.3, part 2. Saint Petersburg: Chromolithography and Typography of V.I.Gratsiansky, 1877. 177.
- Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1888. 63.
- Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1888. 63.
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- ^ Montefiore 2001, p. 454
- ^ Montefiore 2001, pp. 461–63
- ^ Rounding 2006, pp. 458
- ^ a b Montefiore 2001, pp. 464–65
- ^ Montefiore 2001, p. 473
- ^ Montefiore 2001, pp. 476–77
- ^ Montefiore 2001, pp. 478–79
- ^ Montefiore 2001, pp. 482–84
- ^ Montefiore 2001, pp. 485–86
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- ^ Chernova, Anna; Pincheta, Rob (28 October 2022). "Russia removes bones of 18th-century commander revered by Putin from occupied Ukrainian city". CNN. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
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- ^ Montefiore 2001, p. 340
- ^ a b Montefiore 2001, pp. 490–1
- ^ Montefiore 2001, p. 334
- ^ a b Montefiore 2001, p. 343
- ^ a b c Montefiore 2001 Appendix: The Inner Family of Prince Potemkin including Favourite Nieces and Nephews
- ^ Montefiore 2001, p. 149
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- ^ What's the Big Deal?: Battleship Potemkin (1925), archived from the original on 25 November 2010, retrieved 28 November 2010
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Sources
- Kaus, Gina (1935). Catherine: Portrait of an Empress. Viking.
- ISBN 978-0-7126-0546-5.
- ISBN 978-83-222-0313-2.
- ISBN 978-1-84212-438-3.
- Pascu, Giorge (1940). Calatori straini în Moldova si Muntenia în secolul XVIII : Carra, Bauer si Struve (in Romanian). Iași: Institutul de Arte Grafice "Bravo".
- Rounding, Virginia (2006). Catherine the Great. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-179992-2.
- Smith, Douglas (ed. and tr.), Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin (DeKalb, Northern Illinois University Press, 2004).
- Soloveytchik, George (1938). Potemkin. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
External links
- Douglas Smith, Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin
- New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
.
- Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). p. 205.