Gupta art
Gupta art is the art of the
Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, while the production of the Buddha-figure and
It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced under the
In general the style was very consistent across the empire and the other kingdoms where it was used.[8] The vast majority of surviving works are religious sculpture, mostly in stone with some in metal or terracotta, and architecture, mostly in stone with some in brick. The Ajanta Caves are virtually the sole survival from what was evidently a large and sophisticated body of painting,[9] and the very fine coinage the main survivals in metalwork. Gupta India produced both textiles and jewellery, which are only known from representations in sculpture and especially the paintings at Ajanta.[10]
Background
Gupta art was preceded by
With the conquests of
Early chronology
There are several pieces of statuary from the Gupta period which are inscribed with a date.[21] They work as a benchmark for the chronology and the evolution of style under the Guptas. These Gupta statues are dated from the Gupta era (which starts in 318–319 CE), and sometimes mention the reigning ruler of that time.[21] Besides statuary, coinage is also an important chronological indicator.[22]
Although the Gupta Empire is reckoned to start after King Gupta in the late 3rd century CE, the earliest known and dated sculptures of Gupta art come relatively late, about a century later, after the conquest of northwestern India under Samudragupta. Among the earliest is an inscribed pillar recording the installation of two Shiva Lingas in Mathura in 380 CE under Chandragupta II, Samudragupta's successor.[23] Another rare example is a statue of a seated Bodhisattva in the Mathura style with dhoti and shawl on the left shoulder, coming from Bodh Gaya and dated to "year 64", presumably of the Gupta era, thought to be 384 CE.[15] This type remained a rare occurrence, as in most of the later Gupta statues the Buddha would be shown with the samghati monastic robe covering both shoulders.[15]
Coinage too was a relatively late development, also consecutive to Samugragupta's conquest of the northwest.[24][25][26] The Gupta coinage was initially in imitation of the Kushan types.[27][28][29]
Style
The Gupta style of statuary, especially as seen in the Buddha images, is characterized by several formative traits: ornate halos with floral and gem motifs, clothes with thin diaphanous drapery, specific hair curls, meditative eyes, elongated earlobes, relatively thick lower lips, and often three lines across the neck.[30]
Sculpture
Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in
Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of the major deities, respectively
The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear, including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed on either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing the Gupta heartland".[36] The main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time,[37] as in the paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style,[38] and there is a "growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued after the Gupta period.[5]
The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the body as a series of "smooth, very simplified planes" is continued, though poses, especially in the many standing figures, are subtly tilted and varied, in contrast to the "columnar rigidity" of earlier figures.[39] The detail of facial parts, hair, headgear, jewellery and the haloes behind figures are carved very precisely, giving a pleasing contrast with the emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body.[40] Deities of all the religions are shown in a calm and majestic meditative style; "perhaps it is this all-pervading inwardness that accounts for the unequalled Gupta and post-Gupta ability to communicate higher spiritual states".[5]
Mathura school
The long-established Mathura school continued as one of the main two schools of Gupta Empire art, joined by the school of
The art of Mathura continued to become more sophisticated during the Gupta Empire. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period to reach a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling, displaying calm and serenity. The style become elegant and refined, with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone.[1] Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha, and the orante halos around the head of the Buddhas. The art of the Gupta is often considered as the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art, achieving a beautiful rendering of the Buddhist ideal.[1]
Gupta art is also characterized by an expansion of the Buddhist pantheon, with a high importance given to the Buddha himself and to new deities, including
The Gupta art of Mathura was very influential throughout northern India, accompanied by a reducing of foreign influences; its style can be seen in Gupta statues to the east in areas as far as
There are a number of "problematical" Buddhist and Jain images from Mathura whose dating is uncertain; many are dated with a low year number, but which era is being used is unclear. These may well come from the early
-
Buddha in Abhaya Mudra.Kushana-Gupta transitional period. Circa 3rd-4th century, Mathura.[45]
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Standing Buddha, inscribed Gupta Era year 115 (434 CE), Mathura.[46]
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Vishnu holds the Kaumodaki in his lower right hand; 5th century.
-
A relief of the Trivikrama , "three strides of Vishnu", in the art of Mathura during the Gupta period.
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Vāsudeva-Krishna in human form, Varaha as a boar, Narasimha as a lion. Mathura, mid-5th century CE. Boston Museum.[47]
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Vishnu, 5th century, Mathura
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Narasimha, early 6th century,Mathura
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Seated Jain Tirthankara, circa 5th Century CE, Mathura.
Sarnath school
The Varanasi/ Sarnath style produced mainly Buddhist art, and "Sarnath Buddhas are probably the greatest single achievement of the Indian sculptor", largely setting the representation of the Buddha that was followed in eastern India and South-East Asia for many centuries, and the general representation of the human body in India.[50] A number of dated examples show that the mature style did not develop until 450–475.[51] It is characterized by its yellowish sandstone from the quarries of Chunar, and lacks the foreign influences seen in Mathura.[43] Folds on clothing have disappeared, and the clothing itself is extremely thin, to the point of being transparent. The halo has become large and is often elaborately decorated.[52] The top edge of the eye-socket is very marked, forming a sharply carved edge.[53]
The Sarnath style was the origin of Buddha images in
-
Buddha, standing, inscribed: "Gift of Abhayamira in 154 GE" (474 CE) in the reign of Kumaragupta II. Sarnath Museum.[57]
-
5th century Sarnath statue, Indian Museum.
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Buddha head, Sarnath, 5th century
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Buddha, 450-500
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Relief of in 461 CE
Other centres
- Nalanda
Gupta sculptural qualities tend to deteriorate with time, as in
- Udayagiri Caves/Vidisha
The "first dated sculptures in a fully-fledged early Gupta style" come from the rock-cut
-
Head of Vishnu from Vidisha near Udayagiri, Central India, 4th century
-
Vishnu in the form of Varaha, Udayagiri caves, circa 400 CE.[62] In front, probable relief of Chandragupta II (380–415 CE) kneeling, paying homage to Varaha.[63]
- Eran
- Others
The surviving sanctuary of the early 6th-century Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh has a typically fine doorway, and large relief panels on the other three walls. These are now external, but would originally gave given on to the covered ambulatory. Though "majestic", these show "the sturdiness of early Gupta sculpture is yielding to a softer, more delicate and ultimately weaker style".[65] The row of men beneath the sleeping Vishnu have "stylized poses, probably imitated from the theatre".[66]
There are also other minor centres of Gupta sculpture, particularly in the areas of
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara continued a late phase through at least most of the Gupta period, having also been a formative influence.[59]
Very important rock-cut sites outside the Gupta Empire proper, to the south, are the
When combined with the painted walls, the effect can be considered over-decorated, and lacking "motifs on a larger scale to serve as focal points". The main internal carving was probably completed by 478, though votive figures to the sides of many cave entrances may be later. The Ajanta style is only seen at a few other sites nearby. After work ended there much of the skilled workforce, or their descendants, probably ended up working at Elephanta and then Ellora.[69]
Unlike the series of caves side by side at Ajanta, the main interest at Elephanta is the largest cave, a huge Shiva temple, and above all the colossal triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, which "because it is so amazingly skilfully placed in relation to the various external entrances ... receives exactly the amount of light necessary to make it look as if it is emerging from a black void, manifestation from the unmanifest".[70] Also from the Mumbai area, the Parel Relief or (Parel Shiva) is an important late Gupta monolithic relief of Shiva in seven forms.[70]
-
Vishnu, Central India, 5th century
-
Cast of the Parel Relief, in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya
Terracotta sculpture
The earliest terracottas datable to the Gupta period appear under the
The Gupta period saw the production of many sculptures in terracotta of very fine quality, and they are similar in style across the empire, to an even greater extent than the stone sculpture.[5] Some can still be seen in their original settings on the brick temple at Bhitargaon, where the large relief panels have almost worn away, but various heads and figures survive at higher levels.[77] The very elegant pair of river goddesses excavated from a temple at Ahichchhatra are 1.47 metres high.
-
Terracotta Buddha head,Devnimori, Gujarat, 375-400. These early terracottas show the influence of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,[13] and belong to the art of the Western Satraps.[13]
-
Buddha from the Kahu-Jo-Darro stupa at Mirpur Khas, Sindh, circa 410 CE. This is a conflation of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and Gupta art.[78]
-
TerracottaNational Museum, New Delhi.[79]
Sculpture in metal
The over life-size copper
The style of the Sultanganj figure, made by lost-wax casting, is comparable to slightly earlier stone Buddha figures from Sarnath in "the smoothly rounded attenuation of body and limbs" and the very thin, clinging body garment, indicated in the lightest of ways. The figure has "a feeling of animation imparted by the unbalanced stance and the movement suggested by the sweeping silhouette of the enveloping robe".[80]
Coins and metalwork
Survivals of decorated secular metalwork are very rare,[82] but a silver plate in the Cleveland Museum of Art shows a crowded festival scene in rather worn relief.[83] There is also a highly decorated object in bronzed iron that is thought to be a weight for an architect's "plummet" or measuring line, now in the British Museum.[84]
The gold coinage of the Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are regarded as the finest coins in a purely Indian style.[85] The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.[86]
Coinage
Gupta coinage only started with the reign of Samudragupta (335/350-375 CE), or possibly at the end of the reign of his father Chandragupta I, for whom only one coin type in his name is known ("Chandragupta I and his queen"), probably a commemorative issue minted by his son.[24][25][26][87] The coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest.[25][26][88] The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of Dinara for their coinage, which ultimately came from the Roman name Denarius aureus.[89][90][91] The imagery on Gupta coins was initially derived from Kushan types, but the features soon became more Indian in both style and subject matter compared to earlier dynasties, where Greco-Roman and Persian styles were mostly followed.[27][28][29]
The usual layout is an
Types showing the king hunting and killing various animals: lions (the "lion-slayer" type), tigers and rhinoceros very likely refer to new conquests in the areas where those animals were still found. They may also reflect influence from
Some gold coins commemorate the
The silver coinage of the Guptas was made in imitation of the coinage of the Western Satraps following their overthrow by Chandragupta II, inserting the Gupta peacock symbol on the reverse but retaining traces of the Greek legend and the ruler's portrait on the obverse.[98][99] Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also introduced some other new types.[85] The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the nine types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuda and the name of the king on it. The gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gold coins and the disappearance of silver money, bear ample evidence to their curtailed territory.[85]
-
Chandragupta I and his queen
-
Samudragupta (left) playing a musical instrument; Goddess, right, c 335-380
-
Samudragupta coin with Ashvamedha horse standing in front of a yūpa sacrificial post, with legend "The King of Kings, who had performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice, wins heaven after conquering the earth".[100][101]
-
Chandragupta II on horse
-
Archer type of Chandragupta II
-
Reverse of last; goddess seated on a lotus
-
Kumaragupta I lion hunting on an elephant,
-
Coin of Gupta ruler Kumaragupta I (r.414–455) (Western territories).[102]
-
Silver head of Skandagupta, peacock on reverse, 455-467. Style of the Western Satraps.[102][103][62]
Architecture
For reasons that are not entirely clear, for the most part the Gupta period represented a hiatus in
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at
Examples of early North Indian Hindu temples that have survived after the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa (early 5th century),[110] Pataini temple (5th century),[111] Sanchi Temple 17 (similar, but respectively Hindu and Buddhist), Deogarh, Parvati Temple, Nachna (465),[112] Bhitargaon, the largest Gupta brick temple to survive,[113] and Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625 CE). Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator.[114]
There are a number of different broad models, which would continue to be the case for more than a century after the Gupta period, but temples such as Tigawa and Sanchi Temple 17, which are small but massively built stone
-
Maurya
-
Garhwa fort, a hindu temple complex belonging to the Gupta Period , 5th-6th century.
-
Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, a 6th-century Vishnu temple, originally with a mandapa and covered ambulatory.
-
The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
-
Vishnu temple in Eran, late 5th century.
-
Pataini temple is a Jain temple built during the Gupta period, 5th century
Pillars
Pillars with inscriptions were erected, recording the main achievements of Gupta rulers. Whereas the Pillars of Ashoka were cylindrical, smooth and finished with the famous Mauryan polish, Gupta pillars had a rough surface often shaped into geometrical facets.[117]
-
The iron pillar of Delhi, which features an inscription of Chandragupta II (c.375-415 CE)
-
The Bhitari pillar of Skandagupta (c.455–c.467 CE)
-
The Jain Kahaum pillar of Skandagupta (461 CE)
-
TheBuddhaguptapillar at Eran, 484/5
Chronology
The chronology of Gupta art is quite critical to the art history of the region. Fortunately, several statues are precisely dated, based on inscriptions referring to the various rulers of the Gupta Empire, and giving their regnal dates in the Gupta era.
Dated statuary under the Guptas (319–543 CE) | |
|
Final period: Sondani (525 CE)
The sculptures at
-
Dvarapalas, circa 525 CE
-
Sondani pillar capital, circa 525 CE
-
National Museum, New Delhi
Influences in Southeast Asia
Indian art, particularly Gupta and Post-Gupta art from Eastern India, was influential in the development of Buddhist and Hindu art in Southeast Asia from the 6th century CE.[127] The Mon people of the kingdom of Dvaravati in modern Thailand were among the first to adopt Buddhism, and developed a particular style of Buddhist art. Mon-Davarati statues of the Buddha have facial features and hair styles reminiscent of the art of Mathura.[127] In pre-Angkorian Cambodia from the 7th century CE, Harihara statues fusing the characteristics of Shiva and Vishnu are known.[127]
-
A seated Buddha in Dvaravati style, 6th century CE
-
Harihara statue, Cambodia, 7th century CE
See also
- Indian art
- Architecture of India
- Indo-Greek art
- Art of Mathura
- Mauryan art
- Kushan art
- Hoysala architecture
- Vijayanagara architecture
- Greco-Buddhist art
- Chola art and architecture
- Pallava art and architecture
- Badami Chalukya architecture
Notes
- ^ a b c d Mookerji, 142
- ^ Rowland's chapter 15 is called "The Golden Age: The Gupta Period; Harle, 88
- JSTOR 20111042.
- ^ Harle, 118
- ^ a b c d e Harle, 89
- ^ Rowland, 215
- ^ Harle, 199
- ^ Harle, 89; Rowland, 216
- ^ Harle, 88, 355–361
- ^ Rowland, 252–253
- ISBN 978-0205873487.
- ISBN 978-9004069411.
- ^ a b c The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2
- ^ ISBN 9789004036253.
- ^ JSTOR 3250056.
- ISBN 9781305537781.
- ISBN 9788120804401.
- ISBN 9788171546947.
- ISBN 9781448885077.
- ^ Harle, 88
- ^ ISBN 978-81-208-0592-7.
- ^ Pal, 69
- ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
- ^ a b Altekar, A. s (1957). Coinage Of The Gupta Empire. p. 39.
- ^ ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ ISBN 9781438109961.
- ^ ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ a b Pal, 78
- ^ ISBN 9780520059917.
- ^ Ishikawa, Ken (2019). "More Gandhāra than Mathurā: substantial and persistent Gandhāran influences provincialized in the Buddhist material culture of Gujarat and beyond, c. AD 400–550" in "The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art". p. 166.
"However, all the Gupta Buddha images show one or more formative-Gupta characteristics: the ornamentation of the halo with floral and gem motifs, the garments with diaphanous drapery, hair curls, meditative eyes, elongated earlobes, the pronounced lower lip and/or three lines across his neck (Miyaji 1980: 16).
- ISBN 978-1-884446-05-4, retrieved 2020-12-25
- ^ Mookerji, 1, 143
- ^ Harle, 89; Rowland, 216; Mookerji, 143
- ^ Harle, 87–88
- ^ Rowland, 234
- ^ Harle, 87–88, 88 quoted
- ^ Rowland, 235
- ^ Rowland, 232
- ^ Rowland, 233
- ^ Rowland, 230–233, 232 and 233 quoted
- ISBN 978-81-7596-278-1.
There is strong archaeological evidence in favour of Mathura being a centre of Buddhist religious activities (and not Vaishnava worship) during the Gupta period. (...) In fact the Hindu images which appear at Mathura in the pre-Gupta days are very few in number...
- ^ Rowland, 229–232; Mookerji, 143
- ^ a b c d e Mookerji, 143
- ^ Mookerji, 142–143
- Kushana-Gupta transitional period" per Mathura Museum label, visible on the photograph.
- ^ a b "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
- .
- ^ Rowland, 234–235; Harle, 109–110
- ^ Harle 1994, p. 109.
- ^ Harle, 107–110, 107 quoted
- ^ Harle, 110
- ^ Rowland, 232–237;
- ^ Harle, 89–90
- ^ Harle, 109–110; Rowland, 235
- ^ a b Fleet, John Faithfull (1960). Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors. p. 47.
- ^ a b "Mankuwar Buddha Image Inscription of the Time of Kumaragupta I siddham". siddham.uk.
- ^ a b "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
- ^ British Museum page[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b Harle, 92
- ^ Harle, 92–97, 93 quoted
- ^ Harle, 93
- ^ ISBN 978-1-61069-566-4.
- JSTOR 20801634.
- ^ Harle, 97–100, 99–100 quoted
- ^ Harle, 113
- ^ Harle, 113–114
- ^ Mookerji, 144; Harle, 114
- ^ Harle, 118–120 (120 quoted), 122–124
- ^ Harle, 122
- ^ a b Harle, 124
- ^ a b "Mother Goddess". Cleveland Museum of Art. 31 October 2018.
- ^ India, Rajasthan, Tanesara-Mahadeva, Gupta Period. "Matrika from Tanesara".
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
- ^ Ishikawa, Ken (2020). "More Gandhāra than Mathurā: substantial and persistent Gandhāran influences provincialized in the Buddhist material culture of Gujarat and beyond, c. AD 400–550" in "The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art" (PDF). Archaeopress Archaeology. pp. 156–157.
Furthermore, I will trace the waves of Gandhāran influences observed at Devnīmorī, which within, or after, a century or so eventually reached Sārnāth and Ajaṇṭā and locally persisted at Śāmalājī in north Gujarat, Dhānk in Saurashtra in India, and Mīrpur Khās in Sindh in Pakistan.
- ^ Ishikawa, Ken (January 2020). The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art. p. 168.
Overall, the early Gupta Jain tīrthaṅkara images from Vidiśā are regarded as anticipating, together with the Bodh Gayā Buddha/Bodhisattva image and fully-fledged Gupta-style buddha images at Devnīmorī soon after, the fully-fledged/mature Gupta Buddha images at Mathurā and Sārnāth that developed during the following fifth century AD.
- ^ Ishikawa, Ken (2019). "More Gandhāra than Mathurā: substantial and persistent Gandhāran influences provincialized in the Buddhist material culture of Gujarat and beyond, c. AD 400–550" in "The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art". pp. 156ff.
Even so, the idea that Devnīmorī or the Western Kṣatrapas were the progenitor of Gupta material culture has long been a subject of debate (Williams 1982 58-9). Although the role of western India in the formation of pan-Indian Gupta material culture is a notoriously problematic issue, we might further contextualize Devnīmorī by reconsidering the extent of the late Gandhāran influence as well as pre-existing material culture of Gujarat.
- ^ Harle, 115
- ^ Indian Art. Prince of Wales Museum of Western India. 1964. pp. 2–4.
The terracotta figures of Mirpur Khas represent the Gupta idiom as it flourished in Sindh. (...) In the terracottas of Mirpur Khas, of which the Museum has a most representative collection, one may see the synthesis of Gandhara and Gupta traditions . Here the old sacrosanct forms of Gandhara are moulded in the Gupta character of nobility , restraint and spirituality and the result is very pleasing. The figures of the Buddha from Mirpur Khas show transformation from the Gandhara to Gupta idiom , which the figures of the donor and Kubera show well developed Gupta types.
- ^ Harle 1994, p. 117.
- ^ a b Rowland, 237
- ^ Rowland, 237–239
- ^ Rowland, 253
- ^ "Plate with a Scene of Revelry", Cleveland Museum of Art
- ^ Rowland, 253–254
- ^ a b c The Coins Of India, by Brown, C.J. p.13-20
- ^ Allan, J. & Stern, S. M. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ISBN 9788120603455.
- ISBN 9780300119169.
- ^ "Known by the term Dinars in early Gupta inscriptions, their gold coinage was based on the weight standard of the Kushans i.e. 8 gms/120 grains. It was replaced in the time of Skandagupta by a standard of 80 ratis or 144 grains" Vanaja, R. (1983). Indian Coinage. National Museum.
- ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ Gupta inscriptions using the term "Dinara" for money: No 5-9, 62, 64 in Fleet, John Faithfull (1960). Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors.
- ^ Mookerji, 139–141; Bajpai, 121; Pal, 78–80
- ^ Sircar, 215–217; Pal, 74–75. The alternative explanation is that these animals were still more widespread than is usually thought.
- ^ Mookerji, 139–141; Pal, 73–74
- ^ Glucklich, 111–113; Mookerji, 140; Pal, 79–80 suggests instead the female figure may represent Vijaya, the goddess of victory.
- ^ Mookerji, 139–141; Pal, 73–75
- ^ Bajpai, 121–124
- ISBN 978-81-7017-427-1. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p. cli
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-11344-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-391-03250-7.
- ^ a b c "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type ... for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc.", p.cli
- ISBN 978-1-61069-566-4.
- ^ Harle 1994, p. 116.
- ^ Ajanta chronology is still under discussion, but this is the view of Spink, accepted by many.
- ISBN 1568983247, 9781568983240, google books
- ^ Harle 1994, pp. 118–22, 123–26, 129–35.
- ^ Harle 1994, pp. 92–97.
- ^ Harle, 113–114; see also site entries in Michell (1990)
- ^ Michell (1990), 192
- ^ Cunningham, Alexander (1879). Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces in 1873-74 and 1874-75. Archaeological Survey of India. Vol. 9. Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 31.
- ISBN 0-02-909850-5, page 370
- ^ Michell (1990), 157; Michell (1988), 96
- ^ Harle, 111–113, 136–138; Michell (1988), 90, 96–98; see also site entries in Michell (1990)
- ^ Harle, 111–113; Michell (1988), 94–98
- ^ Harle, 175
- ISBN 978-81-7200-007-3.
- ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
- ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
- ^ Majumdar, B. (1937). Guide to Sarnath. p. 89.
- ^ Fleet 1888, p. 88.
- ISBN 978-81-7017-035-8.
- ^ "Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna". Archived from the original on 2019-11-01. Retrieved 2021-12-18.
- JSTOR 20111042.
- JSTOR 20111042.
- JSTOR 20111042.
- ^ ISBN 978-0205873487.
References
Art forms of India |
---|
- Bajpai, K. D., Indian Numismatic Studies, 2004, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170170354, 9788170170358, google books
- Fleet, John Faithfull (1888). Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and Their Successors. Superintendent of Government Printing.
- Glucklich, Ariel (2007). The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195314052.
- Gupte, Ramesh Shankar; Mahajan, B. D. (1962). Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves. D. B. Taraporevala.
- Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
- Mookerji, Radhakumud (1997), The Gupta Empire, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 9788120804401, google books
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