Gupta Empire

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Gupta Empire
c. 319c. 550 CE
Map of the Gupta Empire c. 420 CE, according to Joseph E. Schwartzberg, with contemporary polities[1]
StatusEmpire
CapitalPataliputra
Ayodhya[2][3]
Common languagesSanskrit (literary and academic); Prakrit (vernacular)
Religion
Maharajadhiraja
 
• c. late 3rd century
Gupta (first)
• c. 540 – c. 550 CE
Vishnugupta
Historical era
Ancient India
• Established
c. 319
• Disestablished
c. 550 CE
Area
400 est.[4]
(high-end estimate of peak area)
3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi)
440 est.[5]
(low-end estimate of peak area)
1,700,000 km2 (660,000 sq mi)
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Western Satraps
Nagas of Padmavati
Mahameghavahana dynasty
Murunda dynasty
Alchon Huns
Maukhari
Maitraka
Vardhana dynasty
Mathara dynasty
Shailodbhava dynasty
Varman dynasty
Gauda Kingdom
Kalachuris
Gurjara kingdoms
Nala dynasty
Sharabhapuriya dynasty
Rajarsitulyakula
Rai dynasty
Later Guptas

The Gupta Empire was an

Kiratas, and others.[11][12][13]

The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. Many

Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.[17] The period, sometimes described as Pax Gupta, gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that "set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent course of art, not only in India but far beyond her borders".[19] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India and Southeast Asia.[20][unreliable source?] The Puranas, earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period.[19][21] Hinduism was followed by the rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas tolerated people of other faiths as well.[22]

The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia.[23][24] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.

Origin

The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain.

Saketa, and Magadha areas in the Ganges basin.[29][30]

Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present-day

Nalanda, which would mean it was situated somewhere in the modern Bengal region.[31] Another proposal is that the early Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern Bengal in the east.[32]

The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty's

Brahmanas, because they had matrimonial relations with Brahmans, but others reject this evidence as inconclusive.[39] Based on the Pune and Riddhapur inscriptions of the Gupta princess Prabhavati-gupta, some scholars believe that the name of her paternal gotra (clan) was "Dharana", but an alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was the gotra of her mother Kuberanaga.[40]

History

Early rulers

Allahabad pillar, where Samudragupta presents king Gupta as his great-grandfather. Dated circa 350 CE.[41]
Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, depicted on a gold coin

Gupta (

IAST: Śrigupta), "Shri" being an honorific prefix.[45] According to Yijing, this king built a temple for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims near "Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no" (believed to be a transcription of Mṛgaśikhāvana).[46]

In the

Maharajadhiraja ("king of great kings"). In the later period, the title Maharaja was used by feudatory rulers, which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha were vassals (possibly of Kushan Empire).[47] However, there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the title Maharaja, in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta periods, so this cannot be said with certainty. That said, there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I.[48]

Chandragupta I married the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi, which may have helped him extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the imperial title Maharajadhiraja.[49] According to the dynasty's official records, he was succeeded by his son Samudragupta. However, the discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta ruler named Kacha have led to some debate on this topic: according to one theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta; another possibility is that Kacha was a rival claimant to the throne.[50]

Samudragupta

Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE, and ruled until c. 375 CE.[51] The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests.[52] The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted 8 kings of Āryāvarta, the northern region, including the Nagas.[53] It further claims that he subjugated all the kings of the forest region, which was most probably located in central India.[54] It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha, the southern region: the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars,[55] but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.[56] The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as the Pallava kingdom in the south, and defeated Vishnugopa, the Pallava regent of Kanchi.[57] During this southern campaign, Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of the Bay of Bengal.[58]

Evolution of Gupta territory, with neighbouring polities

The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal

Abhiras, among others.[13]

Finally, the inscription mentions that several foreign kings tried to please Samudragupta by personal attendance; offered him their daughters in marriage (or according to another interpretation, gifted him maidens[60]); and sought the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.[61] This is an exaggeration: for example, the inscription lists the king of Simhala among these kings. It is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala king Meghavarna sent rich presents to the Gupta king requesting his permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya: Samudragupta's panegyrist appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience.[62]

Samudragupta appears to have been

Brahmanical ceremonies.[65] The Gupta records credit him with making generous donations of cows and gold.[63] He performed the Ashvamedha ritual (horse sacrifice), which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see Coinage below) to mark this performance.[66]

The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless.[67] It also alludes to the king's talents as a musician and a poet, and calls him the "king of poets".[68] Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta's gold coins, which depict him playing a veena.[69]

Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in present-day India, as well as a substantial part of central India.[70] Besides, his empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern India, and of the south-eastern coastal region of India.[71][56]

Ramagupta

Mathura Museum[72]

Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, the

Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[74]

Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya"

According to the Gupta records, amongst his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II, born of queen

Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409. His main opponent Rudrasimha III was defeated by 395, and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast to coast, established a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.[citation needed] Kuntala inscriptions indicate rule of Chandragupta in Kuntala region of Indian state of Karnataka.[76] Hunza inscription also indicate that Chandragupta was able to rule north western Indian subcontinent and proceeded to conquer Balkh, although some scholars have also disputed the identity of gupta king.[77][78] Chalukyan ruler Vikramditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) mentions Chandragupta with his title and states"why should the glory of the Kings Vikramaditya and Nanda be a hindrance any longer ? he with a loud command abolished that (era), which has the name of Saka, and made that (era) which has the Chalukya counting".[79]

Gold coins of Chandragupta II

Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of

Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian
in his diary and published afterwards.

The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was

Kālidāsa
, whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the years to come. Kalidasa was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse.

Chandragupta II's campaigns against foreign tribes

Sculpture of Vishnu (red sandstone), 5th century CE.

The 4th century

Kiratas, as well as India proper.[11][non-primary source needed] In one of his works Kalidasa also credits him with the removal of the Sakas from the country. He wrote 'Wasn't it Vikramaditya who drove the Sakas out from the lovely city of Ujjain?'.[80]

The Brihatkathamanjari of the

Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, and others, by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely".[81][non-primary source needed][82][83][unreliable source?
]

Faxian

Rajagriha, and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Faxian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code was mild, and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.[84]

Faxian on reaching Mathura comments––

"The snow and heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households. Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If they want to go, they go. If they want to stay on, they stay on. The king governs without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined according to circumstances. Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their right-hand cut off. The king's bodyguards & attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature, not drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic."[84]

Kumaragupta I

rajadhiraja Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.[87]

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son

He was the founder of

Nalanda University which on 15 July 2016 was declared as a UNESCO world heritage site.[90] Kumaragupta I was also a worshipper of Kartikeya
.

Skandagupta

Sweta Huna
), from the northwest.

He repelled a Huna attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta, the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of the Kidarites.[92] The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.[92]

Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[93]

Decline of the empire

Jain tirthankara relief Parshvanatha on Kahaum pillar erected by person named Madra during the reign of Skandagupta

[94]

Following Skandagupta's death, the empire was clearly in decline,[95] and the later Gupta coinage indicates their loss of control over much of western India after 467–469.[6] Skandagupta was followed by Purugupta (467–473), Kumaragupta II (473–476), Budhagupta (476–495), Narasimhagupta (495–530), Kumaragupta III (530–540), Vishnugupta (540–550), two lesser known kings namely, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.

In the late 490's the Alchon Huns under Toramana and Mihirakula broke through the Gupta defences in the northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest was overrun by the Huns by 500. According to some scholars the empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula.[96][97] It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by Bhanugupta in 510.[98][99] The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by King Yashodharman from Malwa, and possibly Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta.[100]

These invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to

Benares. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them.[104]

Furthermore, Indian urban culture was left in decline, and

Political fragmentation of South Asia after the retreat of the Alchon Huns to the northwest and the end of the Gupta Empire, c. 600 CE[105]

The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognised ruler of the dynasty's main line was king

Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.[106]

The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta (the Damodarpur copper-plate inscription),

Aulikara ruler Yashodharman c. 532 CE.[108]

A 2019 study by archaeologist Shanker Sharma has concluded that the cause of the Gupta empire's downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle of the 6th century in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.[109]

Post-Gupta successor dynasties

In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the Gangetic region, the Guptas were succeeded by the Maukhari dynasty and the Pushyabhuti dynasty.[110] The coinage of the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas, with portrait of the ruler in profile (although facing in the reverse direction compared to the Guptas, a possible symbol of antagonism)[111] and the peacock on the reverse, the Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler.[110]

In the western regions, they were succeeded by the Gurjaras, the Pratiharas, and later the Chaulukya-Paramara dynasties, who issued so-called Indo-Sasanian coinage, on the model of the coinage of the Sasanian Empire, which had been introduced in India by the Alchon Huns.[110]

Military organisation

An 8 gm gold coin featuring Chandragupta II astride a caparisoned horse with a bow in his left hand[112]

In contrast to the

Mauryan Empire, the Guptas introduced several military innovations to Indian warfare. Chief amongst these was the use of siege engines, heavy cavalry archers and heavy sword cavalry. The heavy cavalry formed the core of the Gupta army and were supported by the traditional Indian army elements of elephants and light infantry.[113]

The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage of Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I and Prakasaditya (postulated to be Purugupta)[114] that depicts the emperors as horse-archers.[115][116]

There is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the Imperial Gupta Army. The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit mahakavya (epic poem) Raghuvaṃśa written by the Classical Sanskrit writer and dramatist Kalidasa. Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign of Skandagupta[117][118][119][120] and that the campaigns of Raghu – his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – reflect those of Chandragupta II.[121] In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa relates how the king's forces clash against the powerful, cavalry-centric, forces of the Persians and later the Yavanas (probably Huns) in the North-West. Here he makes special mention of the use horse-archers in the kings army and that the horses needed much rest after the hotly contested battles.[122] The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry, cavalry, chariot, elephants and ships. Gunaighar copper plate inscription of Vainya Gupta mentions ships but not chariots.[123] Ships had become integral part of Indian military in the 6th century CE.

Religion

Dharmachakra Pravartana Buddha at Sarnath
from the Gupta era, 5th century CE

The Guptas were traditionally a

Nalanda.[129] Modern genetic studies indicate that it was during the Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to intermarry (started practicing/enforcing endogamy).[130]

Some later rulers however seem to have especially promoted

Dhyana).[124] The Chinese monk Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son, Vajra, who commissioned a sangharama as well, "possessed a heart firm in faith".[131]: 45 [132]
: 330 

Gupta administration

A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.[133] The Gupta also had trading links with the Sassanid and Byzantine Empire.[citation needed]. The four-fold varna system was observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid. Brahmins followed non-Brahmanical profession as well. Khastriyas were involved in trade and commerce. The society largely coexisted among themselves.[134][need quotation to verify]

Urbanization

Gupta administration proved to be highly conducive for the rapid growth of urban centers. The Chinese author Faxian described Magadha as a prosperous country with rich towns and large populations. Ayodhya was regarded as the second capital. Chandragupta Vikramaditya took personal interest in development of Ujjain as a major cultural center after its conquest.[135]

Legacy

Scholars of this period include

eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period. The Sushruta Samhita
, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.

human sexual behaviour
in Sanskrit literature.

Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth.[137]

Art and architecture

The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North

Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-Buddhist art
. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.

The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at

Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.[143]

Family tree and List of rulers

See also

Notes

  1. ^ According to D. N. Jha, caste distinctions became more entrenched and rigid during this time, as prosperity and the favour of the law accrued the top of the social scale, while the lower orders were degraded further.[8]
  2. ^ "Historians once regarded the Gupta period (c.320–540) as the classical age of India [...] It was also thought to have been an age of material prosperity, particularly among the urban elite [...] Some of these assumptions have been questioned by more-extensive studies of the post-Mauryan, pre-Gupta period. Archaeological evidence from the earlier Kushan levels suggests greater material prosperity, to such a degree that some historians argue for an urban decline in the Gupta period."[9]

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Bibliography

External links