Gupta Empire
Gupta Empire | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
c. 319 CE–c. 550 CE | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Status | Empire | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | Pataliputra Ujjain Ayodhya[2][3] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Common languages | Sanskrit (literary and academic); Prakrit (vernacular) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Religion | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Maharajadhiraja | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• c. Early 3rd century CE | Gupta (first) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• c. 280-319 CE | Ghatotkacha | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• c. 319-335 CE | Chandragupta I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• c. 335-375 CE | Samudragupta | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• c. 375-415 CE | Chandragupta II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• c. 415-455 CE | Kumaragupta I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• c. 455-467 CE | Skandagupta | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• c. 540-550 CE | Vishnugupta (last) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Ancient India | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Established | c. 319 CE | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | c. 550 CE | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
400 est. Cowries | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Today part of |
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire on the
The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns of
The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia.[23][24] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.
Origin
Gupta Empire 320 CE–550 CE | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain.
Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present-day
The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty's
History
Early rulers
Gupta (
In the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha are described as Maharaja ("great king"), while the next king Chandragupta I is called a Maharajadhiraja ("king of great kings"). In the later period, the title Maharaja was used by feudatory rulers, which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha were vassals (possibly of Kushan Empire).[47] However, there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the title Maharaja, in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta periods, so this cannot be said with certainty. That said, there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I.[48]
Chandragupta I married the
Samudragupta
Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE, and ruled until c. 375 CE.[51] The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests.[52] The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted 8 kings of Āryāvarta, the northern region, including the Nagas.[53] It further claims that he subjugated all the kings of the forest region, which was most probably located in central India.[54] It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha, the southern region: the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars,[55] but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.[56] The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as the Pallava kingdom in the south, and defeated Vishnugopa, the Pallava regent of Kanchi.[57] During this southern campaign, Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of the Bay of Bengal.[58]
The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal
Finally, the inscription mentions that several foreign kings tried to please Samudragupta by personal attendance; offered him their daughters in marriage (or according to another interpretation, gifted him maidens[60]); and sought the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.[61] This is an exaggeration: for example, the inscription lists the king of Simhala among these kings. It is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala king Meghavarna sent rich presents to the Gupta king requesting his permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya: Samudragupta's panegyrist appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience.[62]
Samudragupta appears to have been
The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless.[67] It also alludes to the king's talents as a musician and a poet, and calls him the "king of poets".[68] Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta's gold coins, which depict him playing a veena.[69]
Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in present-day India, as well as a substantial part of central India.[70] Besides, his empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern India, and of the south-eastern coastal region of India.[71][56]
Ramagupta
Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, the
Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya"
According to the Gupta records, amongst his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II, born of queen
Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of
The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was
Chandragupta II's campaigns against foreign tribes
The 4th century
The Brihatkathamanjari of the
Faxian
Faxian on reaching Mathura comments––
"The snow and heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households. Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If they want to go, they go. If they want to stay on, they stay on. The king governs without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined according to circumstances. Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their right-hand cut off. The king's bodyguards & attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature, not drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic."[84]
Kumaragupta I
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son
He was the founder of
Skandagupta
He repelled a Huna attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta, the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of the Kidarites.[92] The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.[92]
Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[93]
Decline of the empire
The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognised ruler of the dynasty's main line was king
The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta (the Damodarpur copper-plate inscription),
A 2019 study by archaeologist Shanker Sharma has concluded that the cause of the Gupta empire's downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle of the 6th century in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.[109]
Post-Gupta successor dynasties
In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the Gangetic region, the Guptas were succeeded by the Maukhari dynasty and the Pushyabhuti dynasty.[110] The coinage of the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas, with portrait of the ruler in profile (although facing in the reverse direction compared to the Guptas, a possible symbol of antagonism)[111] and the peacock on the reverse, the Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler.[110]
In the western regions, they were succeeded by the Gurjaras, the Pratiharas, and later the Chaulukya-Paramara dynasties, who issued so-called Indo-Sasanian coinage, on the model of the coinage of the Sasanian Empire, which had been introduced in India by the Alchon Huns.[110]
Military organisation
In contrast to the
The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage of Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I and Prakasaditya (postulated to be Purugupta)[114] that depicts the emperors as horse-archers.[115][116]
There is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the Imperial Gupta Army. The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit mahakavya (epic poem) Raghuvaṃśa written by the Classical Sanskrit writer and dramatist Kalidasa. Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign of Skandagupta[117][118][119][120] and that the campaigns of Raghu – his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – reflect those of Chandragupta II.[121] In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa relates how the king's forces clash against the powerful, cavalry-centric, forces of the Persians and later the Yavanas (probably Huns) in the North-West. Here he makes special mention of the use horse-archers in the kings army and that the horses needed much rest after the hotly contested battles.[122] The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry, cavalry, chariot, elephants and ships. Gunaighar copper plate inscription of Vainya Gupta mentions ships but not chariots.[123] Ships had become integral part of Indian military in the 6th century CE.
Religion
The Guptas were traditionally a
Some later rulers however seem to have especially promoted
Gupta administration
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.[133] The Gupta also had trading links with the Sassanid and Byzantine Empire.[citation needed]. The four-fold varna system was observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid. Brahmins followed non-Brahmanical profession as well. Khastriyas were involved in trade and commerce. The society largely coexisted among themselves.[134][need quotation to verify]
Urbanization
Gupta administration proved to be highly conducive for the rapid growth of urban centers. The Chinese author Faxian described Magadha as a prosperous country with rich towns and large populations. Ayodhya was regarded as the second capital. Chandragupta Vikramaditya took personal interest in development of Ujjain as a major cultural center after its conquest.[135]
Legacy
Scholars of this period include
Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth.[137]
Art and architecture
-
AMaurya foundation, an example of Buddhist architecture and Hindu architecture.[138][failed verification][139][140]5th century CE.
-
Pataini temple is a Jain temple built during the Gupta period.
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at
-
Dashavatara Temple5th century
-
Buddha from Sarnath, 5–6th century CE
-
The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves
-
Painting ofPadmapani Cave 1 at Ajanta
-
Nalrajar Garh fortification wall in Chilapata Forests, West Bengal, is one of the last surviving fortification remains from the Gupta period, currently 5–7 m high
-
Nalanda University was first established under Gupta Empire
-
Bitargaon temple from the Gupta period provide one of the earliest examples of pointed arches anywhere in the world
-
Ajanta caves from Gupta era
-
Krishna fighting the horse demon Keshi, 5th century
Family tree and List of rulers
See also
History of India |
---|
Timeline |
- Abhira-Gupta dynasty (Nepal)
- Uchchhakalpa dynasty
Notes
- ^ According to D. N. Jha, caste distinctions became more entrenched and rigid during this time, as prosperity and the favour of the law accrued the top of the social scale, while the lower orders were degraded further.[8]
- ^ "Historians once regarded the Gupta period (c.320–540) as the classical age of India [...] It was also thought to have been an age of material prosperity, particularly among the urban elite [...] Some of these assumptions have been questioned by more-extensive studies of the post-Mauryan, pre-Gupta period. Archaeological evidence from the earlier Kushan levels suggests greater material prosperity, to such a degree that some historians argue for an urban decline in the Gupta period."[9]
References
- ISBN 0226742210. Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
- ISBN 90-6980-007-1
- S2CID 161957449.
During the reign of either the emperor Kumāragupta or, more probably , that of his successor Skandagupta ( AD 455–467 ), the capital of the empire was moved from Pāțaliputra to Ayodhyā...
- ISSN 1076-156X.
- JSTOR 1170959.
- ^ a b Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 29 October 2009.
- ^ N. Jayapalan, History of India, Vol. I, (Atlantic Publishers, 2001), 130.
- ISBN 978-81-7304-285-0.
- ^ Pletcher 2011, p. 90.
- ^ Stein 2010, p. 86-87.
- ^ a b Raghu Vamsa v 4.60–75
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 112–18.
- ^ a b c Upinder Singh 2017, p. 343.
- ^ Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty) Archived 30 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2.
Kalidasa wrote ... with excellence which, by unanimous consent, justifies the inevitable comparisons with Shakespeare ... When and where Kalidasa lived remains a mystery. He acknowledges no links with the Guptas; he may not even have coincided with them ... but the poet's vivid awareness of the terrain of the entire subcontinent argues strongly for a Guptan provenance.
- ^ Vidya Dhar Mahajan 1990, p. 540.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2.
The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden.
- ^ Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century Archived 30 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- ^ a b J.C. Harle 1994, p. 87.
- ^ Trade | The Story of India – Photo Gallery Archived 28 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine. PBS. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- ISBN 978-81-208-1024-2. Archivedfrom the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
- ISBN 9788122411980. Archivedfrom the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 264–69.
- ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 79.
- ISBN 978-92-3-103211-0. Archivedfrom the original on 20 May 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
On the basis of...historians have now come to accept the lower doab region as the original homeland of the Guptas.
- ^ Dilip Kumar Ganguly 1987, p. 14.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 39.
- ^ Dilip Kumar Ganguly 1987, p. 2.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 2.
- ^ Dilip Kumar Ganguly 1987, pp. 7–11.
- ^ Dilip Kumar Ganguly 1987, p. 12.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 44.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 82.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 42.
- ISBN 9788125025238. Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
- ^ R.C. Majumdar 1981, p. 4.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 40.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 83.
- ^ Full inscription, Fleet, John Faithfull (1888). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. 3. pp. 1–17.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 49–55.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 86.
- ^ "The Gupta Empire | Boundless World History". courses.lumenlearning.com. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 79–81.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 85.
- ^ R.C. Majumdar 1981, pp. 6–7.
- ^ R.C. Majumdar 1981, p. 10.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 71.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 106–07.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 114.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 117.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 107.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 112.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 110.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 84.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 125.
- ^ Shankar Goyal 2001, p. 168.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 90.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 68.
- ^ R.C. Majumdar 1981, p. 32.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 91.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 125–26.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 91, 94.
- ^ R.C. Majumdar 1981, p. 31.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 94.
- ^ R.C. Majumdar 1981, pp. 23, 27.
- ^ R.C. Majumdar 1981, p. 22.
- ^ Smith, Vincent Arthur (1911). A history of fine art in India and Ceylon, from the earliest times to the present day. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 170–171.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 153–59.
- ISBN 978-81-7017-035-8. Archivedfrom the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
- ^ H.C. Raychaudhuri 1923, p. 489.
- ^ "Annual Report Of Mysore 1886 To 1903" – via Internet Archive.
- ^ "HALDEIKISH, Sacred Rocks of Hunza". Hunza Bytes. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
- ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. Archivedfrom the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
- ^ Barua, Benimadhab (1929). Old Brahmi Inscriptions In The Udayagiri And Khandagiri Caves.
- ^ Wolpert, Stanley (1993). India. Oxford University Press.
- ^ ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah Mlechchana Kamboja. Yavanan neechan Hunan Sabarbran Tushara. Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra).
- ^ Kathasritsagara 18.1.76–78
- ^ Cf:"In the story contained in Kathasarit-sagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the barbarous tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and the, National Council of Teachers of English Committee on Recreational Reading – Sanskrit language.
- ^ a b Fa-hsien (1886). A record of Buddhistic kingdoms; being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ-Hien of his travels in India and Ceylon, A.D. 399–414, in search of the Buddhist books of discipline. Translated and annotated with a Corean recension of the Chinese text. Translated by Legge, James. Oxford Clarendon Press.
- ISBN 978-81-7017-427-1. Archivedfrom the original on 29 May 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p. cli
- ^ Virji, krishnakumari J. (1952). Ancient History Of Saurashtra. p. 225.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 191–200.
- ^ History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Ahmad Hasan Dani, B.A. Litvinsky, UNESCO pp. 119–
- ^ "Nalanda University Ruins | Nalanda Travel Guide | Ancient Nalanda Site". Travel News India. 5 October 2016. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
- ^ H.C. Raychaudhuri 1923, p. 510.
- ^ a b The Huns, Hyun Jin Kim, Routledge, 2015 pp. 50–
- ^ H.C. Raychaudhuri 1923, p. 516.
- ^ Sharma, Tej Ram (1978). Personal and Geographic Names in Gupta Inscriptions (PDF). p. 93.
- ^ Sachchidananda Bhattacharya, Gupta dynasty, A dictionary of Indian history, (George Braziller, Inc., 1967), 393.
- ISBN 9789004181595. Archivedfrom the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
- ISBN 978-90-6984-715-3, archivedfrom the original on 11 January 2020, retrieved 20 May 2019
- ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p. 220
- ^ Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates by S B. Bhattacherje p. A15
- ^ Columbia Encyclopedia
- ^ a b c d e The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly pp. 48– Archived 5 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p. 221
- ^ A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India p. 174
- ^ Longman History & Civics ICSE 9 by Singh p. 81
- ISBN 0226742210. Archivedfrom the original on 6 February 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9. Archivedfrom the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
- ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol.3 (inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings) p. 362
- ^ a b Indian Esoteric Buddhism: Social History of the Tantric Movement by Ronald M. Davidson p. 31 Archived 7 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Deluge drowned mighty Guptas: Study". The Telegraph. Kolkata. Archived from the original on 19 August 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2019.
- ^ ISBN 9781000227932. Archivedfrom the original on 20 May 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
- ISBN 9788120804043. Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
- ^ *1910,0403.26
- ISBN 978-1-315-74270-0. Archivedfrom the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ISBN 9788170172222. Archivedfrom the original on 14 August 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-315-74270-0. Archivedfrom the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ Majumdar, Bimal Kanti (1960). The military system in ancient India (2 ed.). Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. p. 118.
- ISBN 9788171544684.
- ^ Ram Gopal. p.14
- ISBN 9788120800236.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0027-4.
- ISBN 978-1-315-74270-0. Archivedfrom the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ Kale, Moreshwar Ramchandra (1922). The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa. Canto IV: P.S. Rege.
- JSTOR 44140516.
- ^ a b c A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India by Upinder Singh p. 521
- ^ St-pierre, Paul (2007). In Translation - Reflections, Refractions, Transformations. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 159.
- ^ Wangu, Madhu Bazaz (2003). Images of Indian Goddesses. Abhinav Publications. p. 97.
- ^ O'Brien-Kop, Karen (2021). Rethinking 'Classical Yoga' and Buddhism. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 151.
- ^ Bala, Poonam (2007). Medicine and Medical Policies in India. Lexington Books. p. 37.
- ^ a b c The Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji pp. 133– Archived 17 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Newitz, Annalee (25 January 2016). "The caste system has left its mark on Indians' genomes". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
- ISBN 9781014542144. Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0498-2. Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
- ^ Vidya Dhar Mahajan 1990, pp. 530–31.
- ISBN 9788122411980. Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
- JSTOR 42929739.
- OCLC 13472872.
- ISBN 0-12-421171-2.
- ^ Harle, 111;
- ^ Rowland 1967, pp. 219–220.
- ^ Michell 1988, p. 94.
- ^ J.C. Harle 1994, pp. 118–22, 123–26, 129–35.
- ^ J.C. Harle 1994, pp. 92–97.
- ^ J.C. Harle 1994, pp. 113–14.
Bibliography
- Ashvini Agrawal (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0592-7. Archivedfrom the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2018.
- Dilip Kumar Ganguly (1987). The Imperial Guptas and Their Times. Abhinav. ISBN 978-81-7017-222-2. Archivedfrom the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-4400-5272-9.
- J.C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
- OCLC 34008529.
- Michell, George (1988) [First published 1977]. The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1.
- Pletcher, Kenneth (2011). The History of India. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-201-7.
- Rowland, Benjamin (1967) [First published 1953]. The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain (3rd ed.). Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-056102-9.
- Shankar Goyal (2001). Problems of Ancient Indian History: New Perspectives and Perceptions. Book Enclave. ISBN 978-81-87036-66-1. Archivedfrom the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
- Tej Ram Sharma (1989). A Political History of the Imperial Guptas: From Gupta to Skandagupta. Concept. ISBN 978-81-7022-251-4. Archivedfrom the original on 13 January 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-7855-1191-5. Archivedfrom the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-674-98128-7. Archivedfrom the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6
External links
- Media related to Gupta Empire at Wikimedia Commons
- Coins of Gupta Empire