Hadith
Ḥadīth is the Arabic word for things like a report or an account (of an event).
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Unlike the Quran, not all Muslims believe that hadith accounts (or at least not all hadith accounts) are divine revelation. Different collections of hadīth would come to differentiate the different branches of the Islamic faith.
Because some hadith contain questionable and even contradictory statements, the authentication of hadith became a major field of study in Islam.[21] In its classic form a hadith consists of two parts—the chain of narrators who have transmitted the report (the isnad), and the main text of the report (the matn).[22][23][24][25][26] Individual hadith are classified by Muslim clerics and jurists into categories such as sahih ("authentic"), hasan ("good"), or da'if ("weak").[27] However, different groups and different scholars may classify a hadith differently. Historically, some hadiths deemed to be unreliable were still used by Sunni jurists for non-core areas of law.[28]
Western scholars are generally skeptical of the value of hadith for understanding the true historical Muhammad, even those considered sahih by Muslim scholars, due to their first recording centuries after Muhammad's life, the unverifiability of the claimed chains of transmission, and the widespread creation of fraudulent hadiths. Western scholars instead see hadith as more valuable for recording later developments in Islamic theology.[29]
Etymology
In Arabic, the noun ḥadīth (حديث IPA: [ħæˈdiːθ]) means "report", "account", or "narrative".[30][31] Its Arabic plural is aḥādīth (أحاديث [ʔæħæːˈdiːθ]).[3] Hadith also refers to the speech of a person.[32]
Definition
In Islamic terminology, according to Juan Campo, the term hadith refers to reports of statements or actions of Muhammad, or of his tacit approval or criticism of something said or done in his presence.[26]
Classical hadith specialist Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani says that the intended meaning of hadith in religious tradition is something attributed to Muhammad but that is not found in the Quran.[33]
Scholar Patricia Crone includes reports by others than Muhammad in her definition of hadith: "short reports (sometimes just a line or two) recording what an early figure, such as a companion of the prophet or Muhammad himself, said or did on a particular occasion, preceded by a chain of transmitters". However, she adds that "nowadays, hadith almost always means hadith from Muhammad himself."[34]
In contrast, according to the Shia Islam Ahlul Bayt Digital Library Project, "... when there is no clear Qur'anic statement, nor is there a Hadith upon which Muslim schools have agreed. ... Shi'a ... refer to Ahlul-Bayt [the family of Muhammad] to derive the Sunnah of the Prophet"—implying that while hadith is limited to the "Traditions" of Muhammad, the Shi'a Sunna draws on the sayings, etc. of the Ahlul-Bayt i.e. the
Distinction from sunnah
The word sunnah is also used in reference to a normative custom of Muhammad or the early Muslim community.[26]
Joseph Schacht describes hadith as providing "the documentation" of the sunnah.[36]
Another source (Joseph A. Islam) distinguishes between the two saying:
Whereas the 'Hadith' is an oral communication that is allegedly derived from the Prophet or his teachings, the 'Sunna' (quite literally: mode of life, behaviour or example) signifies the prevailing customs of a particular community or people. ... A 'Sunna' is a practice which has been passed on by a community from generation to generation en masse, whereas the hadith are reports collected by later compilers often centuries removed from the source. ... A practice which is contained within the Hadith may well be regarded as Sunna, but it is not necessary that a Sunna would have a supporting hadith sanctioning it.[37]
Some sources (
Distinction from other literature
Islamic literary classifications similar to hadith (but not sunnah) are maghazi and
- Sīrat (literally "way of going" or "conduct"), biographies of Muhammad, written since the middle of the eighth century. Similar writings called maghazi (literally "raid") preceded the sīrat literature, focusing on military actions of Muhammad, but also included non-military aspects of his life.[39] Therefore, there is overlap in the meaning of the terms, although maghazi suggests military aspects rather than general biographical ones.
Other "traditions" of Islam related to hadith include:
- Khabar (literally news, information, pl. akhbar) may be used as a synonym for hadith, but some scholars use it to refer to traditions about Muhammad's companions and their successors from the following generation, in contrast to hadith as defined as traditions about Muhammad himself. Another definition (by Ibn Warraq) describes them as "discrete anecdotes or reports" from early Islam which "include simple statements, utterances of authoritative scholars, saints, or statesmen, reports of events, and stories about historical events all varying in length from one line to several pages."[40]
- Conversely, athar (trace, remnant) usually refers to traditions about the companions and successors, though sometimes connotes traditions about Muhammad.
Hadith compilation
The hadith literature in use today is based on spoken reports in circulation after the death of Muhammad. Hadith were not promptly written down during Muhammad's lifetime or immediately after his death.[3] Hadith were evaluated orally to written and gathered into large collections during the 8th and 9th centuries, generations after Muhammad's death, after the end of the era of the Rashidun Caliphate, over 1,000 km (600 mi) from where Muhammad lived.
"Many thousands of times" more numerous than the verses of the Quran,[41] hadith have been described as resembling layers surrounding the "core" of Islamic beliefs (the Quran). Well-known, widely accepted hadith make up the narrow inner layer, with a hadith becoming less reliable and accepted with each layer stretching outward.[16]
The reports of Muhammad's (and sometimes his companions') behavior collected by hadith compilers include details of ritual religious practice such as the five (commentaries written on the Quran).
Some important elements, which are today taken to be a long-held part of Islamic practice and belief are not mentioned in the Quran, but are reported in hadiths.[12] Therefore, Muslims usually maintain that hadiths are a necessary requirement for the true and proper practice of Islam, as it gives Muslims the nuanced details of Islamic practice and belief in areas where the Quran is silent. An example is the obligatory prayers, which are commanded in the Quran, but explained in hadith.
Details of the prescribed movements and words of the prayer (known as rak'a) and how many times they are to be performed, are found in hadith. However, hadiths differ on these details and consequently salat is performed differently by different hadithist Islamic sects.[c] Quranists, on the other hand, believe that if the Quran is silent on some matter, it is because God did not hold its detail to be of consequence; and that some hadith contradict the Quran, proving that some hadith are a source of corruption and not a complement to the Quran.[47]
Non-prophetic hadith
According to Schacht, (and other scholars)
"... from other persons are of no account in the face of a tradition from the Prophet, whether they confirm or contradict it; if the other persons had been aware of the tradition from the Prophet, they would have followed it".[53][54]
This led to "the almost complete neglect" of traditions from the Companions and others.[55]
Collections of hadith sometimes mix those of Muhammad with the reports of others. Muwatta Imam Malik is usually described as "the earliest written collection of hadith" but sayings of Muhammad are "blended with the sayings of the companions",[56] (822 hadith from Muhammad and 898 from others, according to the count of one edition).[57][58] In Introduction to Hadith by Abd al-Hadi al-Fadli, Kitab Ali is referred to as "the first hadith book of the Ahl al-Bayt (family of Muhammad) to be written on the authority of the Prophet".[59] However, the acts, statements or approvals of Muhammad are called "Marfu hadith", while those of companions are called "mawquf (موقوف) hadith", and those of Tabi'un are called "maqtu' (مقطوع) hadith".
Impact, typology and components
Impact
The hadith had a profound and controversial influence on
The hadith were used the form the basis of sharia (the religious law system forming part of the Islamic tradition), and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). The hadith are at the root of why there is no single fiqh system, but rather a collection of parallel systems within Islam.
Much of the early Islamic history available today is also based on the hadith, although it has been challenged for its lack of basis in primary source material and the internal contradictions of available secondary material.[60]
The hadith have been called by American-
Types
Hadith may be hadith qudsi (sacred hadith)—which some Muslims regard as the words of God[62]—or hadith sharif (noble hadith), which are Muhammad's own utterances.[63]
According to as-Sayyid ash-Sharif al-Jurjani, the hadith qudsi differ from the Quran in that the former are "expressed in Muhammad's words", whereas the latter are the "direct words of God". A hadith qudsi need not be a sahih (sound hadith), but may be da'if or even mawdu'.[64]
An example of a hadith qudsi is the hadith of
When God decreed the Creation He pledged Himself by writing in His book which is laid down with Him: My mercy prevails over My wrath.[65][non-primary source needed]
In the Shia school of thought, there are two fundamental viewpoints of hadith: The
Components
The two major aspects of a hadith are the text of the report (the matn), which contains the actual narrative, and the chain of narrators (the isnad), which documents the route by which the report has been transmitted.[23][26] The isnad was an effort to document that a hadith actually came from Muhammad, and Muslim scholars from the eighth century to the present have never ceased to repeat the mantra "The isnad is part of the religion—if not for the isnad, whoever wanted could say whatever they wanted."[23] The isnad literally means "support", and it is so named because hadith specialists rely on it to determine the authenticity or weakness of a hadith.[67] The isnad consists of a chronological list of the narrators, each mentioning the one from whom they heard the hadith, until mentioning the originator of the matn along with the matn itself.
The first people to hear hadith were the companions who preserved it and then conveyed it to those after them. Then the generation following them received it, thus conveying it to those after them and so on. So a companion would say, "I heard the Prophet say such and such." The Follower would then say, "I heard a companion say, 'I heard the Prophet.'" The one after him would then say, "I heard someone say, 'I heard a Companion say, 'I heard the Prophet ...''" and so on.[68]
Hadith literature by branch or denomination of Islam
Different branches of Islam refer to different collections of hadith, although the same incident may be found in hadith from different collections. In general, the difference between Shi'a and Sunni collections is that Shia give preference to hadiths attributed to Muhammad's family and close companions (Ahl al-Bayt), while Sunnis do not consider family lineage in evaluating hadith and sunnah narrated by any of twelve thousand companions of Muhammad.[69]
Sunni
- In the Sunni branch of Islam, the canonical hadith collections are Malikis, one of the four Sunni "schools of thought" (madhhabs), traditionally reject Sunan ibn Majah and assert the canonical status of Muwatta Imam Malik.
Shia
- In the Man la yahduruhu al-Faqih, Tahdhib al-Ahkam, and Al-Istibsar.
- The Ismaili shia sects use the Da'a'im al-Islamas their hadith collection.
Ibadi
- In the Ibadi branch of Islam, the main canonical collection is the Tartib al-Musnad. This is an expansion of the earlier Jami Sahihcollection, which retains canonical status in its own right.
Others
- Some minor groups, collectively known as
History, tradition and usage
History
This assertion re Muslim historians citing Uthman on hadith needs additional citations for verification. (April 2011) |
Traditions of the life of Muhammad and the early history of Islam were passed down mostly orally for more than a hundred years after Muhammad's death in AD 632. Muslim historians say that
Uthman's labours were cut short by his assassination, at the hands of aggrieved soldiers, in 656. No direct sources survive directly from this period so we are dependent on what later writers tell us about this period.[72]
According to British historian of Arab world Alfred Guillaume, it is "certain" that "several small collections" of hadith were "assembled in Umayyad times."[73]
In Islamic law, the use of hadith as it is understood today (hadith of Muhammad with documentation, isnads, etc.) came gradually. According to scholars such as
According to the scholars Harald Motzki and Daniel W. Brown the earliest Islamic legal reasonings that have come down to us were "virtually hadith-free", but gradually, over the course of second century A.H. "the infiltration and incorporation of Prophetic hadiths into Islamic jurisprudence" took place.[76][77]
It was Abū ʿAbdullāh Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī (150-204 AH), known as al-Shafi'i,[78][52] who emphasized the final authority of a hadith of Muhammad, so that even the Quran was "to be interpreted in the light of traditions (i.e. hadith), and not vice versa."[79][80] While traditionally the Qur'an has traditionally been considered superior in authority to the sunna, Al-Shafi'i "forcefully argued" that the sunna was "on equal footing with the Quran", (according to scholar Daniel Brown) for (as Al-Shafi'i put it) “the command of the Prophet is the command of God.”[81][82]
In 851 the rationalist
Faced with a huge corpus of miscellaneous traditions supporting different views on a wide variety of controversial matters—some of them flatly contradicting each other—Islamic scholars of the Abbasid period sought to authenticate hadith. Scholars had to decide which hadith were to be trusted as authentic and which had been fabricated for political or theological purposes. To do this, they used a number of techniques which Muslims now call the science of hadith.[89]
The earliest surviving hadith manuscripts were copied on papyrus. A long scroll collects traditions transmitted by the scholar and qadi 'Abd Allāh ibn Lahīʻa (d. 790).[90] A Ḥadīth Dāwūd (History of David), attributed to Wahb ibn Munabbih, survives in a manuscript dated 844.[91] A collection of hadiths dedicated to invocations to God, attributed to a certain Khālid ibn Yazīd, is dated 880-881.[92] A consistent fragment of the Jāmiʿ of the Egyptian Maliki jurist 'Abd Allāh ibn Wahb (d. 813) is finally dated to 889.[93]
Shia and Sunni textual traditions
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Sunni and Shia hadith collections differ because scholars from the two traditions differ as to the reliability of the narrators and transmitters. Narrators who sided with Abu Bakr and Umar rather than Ali, in the disputes over leadership that followed the death of Muhammad, are considered unreliable by the Shia; narrations attributed to Ali and the family of Muhammad, and to their supporters, are preferred. Sunni scholars put trust in narrators such as Aisha, whom Shia reject. Differences in hadith collections have contributed to differences in worship practices and shari'a law and have hardened the dividing line between the two traditions.
Extent and nature in the Sunni tradition
In the Sunni tradition, the number of such texts is somewhere between seven and thirteen thousand,
Over the centuries, several different categories of collections have emerged. Some are more general, such as the muṣannaf, the muʿjam, and the jāmiʿ, and some more specific, characterized either by the subjects covered, such as the sunan (restricted to legal-liturgical traditions), or bytheirs composition, such as the arbaʿīniyyāt (collections of forty hadiths).[99]
Extent and nature in the Shia tradition
Shi'a Muslims seldom if ever use the
Unlike Sunnis, the majority of Shia do not consider any of their hadith collections to be sahih (authentic) in their entirety. Therefore, each individual hadith in a specific collection must be investigated separately to determine its authenticity. The Akhbari school, however, considers all the hadith from the four books to be authentic.[101]
The importance of hadith in the Shia school of thought is well documented. This can be captured by Ali ibn Abi Talib, cousin of Muhammad, when he narrated that "Whoever of our Shia (followers) knows our
Regarding the importance of maintaining accuracy in recording hadith, it has been documented that Muhammad al-Baqir, the great grandson of Muhammad, has said that "Holding back in a doubtful issue is better than entering destruction. Your not narrating a Hadith is better than you narrating a Hadith in which you have not studied thoroughly. On every truth, there is a reality. Above every right thing, there is a light. Whatever agrees with the book of Allah you must take it and whatever disagrees you must leave it alone."[102]: 10 Al-Baqir also emphasized the selfless devotion of Ahl al-Bayt to preserving the traditions of Muhammad through his conversation with Jabir ibn Abd Allah, an old companion of Muhammad. He (Al-Baqir) said, "Oh Jabir, had we spoken to you from our opinions and desires, we would be counted among those who are destroyed. We speak to you of the hadith which we treasure from the Messenger of Allah, Oh Allah grant compensation to Muhammad and his family worthy of their services to your cause, just as they treasure their gold and silver."[102] Further, it has been narrated that Ja'far al-Sadiq, the son of al-Baqir, has said the following regarding hadith: "You must write it down; you will not memorize until you write it down."[102]: 33
Modern usage
Hadith as an Interpretation of the Holy Quran:
Move not your tongue with it, to hasten with recitation of it. Indeed, upon Us is its collection and its recitation. So when We have recited it, then follow its recitation. Then upon Us is Interpretation. Surah Al Qiyamah, verse 16–19.[103]
The mainstream sects consider hadith to be essential supplements to, and clarifications of, the Quran, Islam's holy book, as well as for clarifying issues pertaining to Islamic jurisprudence. Ibn al-Salah, a hadith specialist, described the relationship between hadith and other aspects of the religion by saying: "It is the science most pervasive in respect to the other sciences in their various branches, in particular to jurisprudence being the most important of them."[104] "The intended meaning of 'other sciences' here are those pertaining to religion," explains Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, "Quranic exegesis, hadith, and jurisprudence. The science of hadith became the most pervasive due to the need displayed by each of these three sciences. The need hadith has of its science is apparent. As for Quranic exegesis, then the preferred manner of explaining the speech of God is by means of what has been accepted as a statement of Muhammad. The one looking to this is in need of distinguishing the acceptable from the unacceptable. Regarding jurisprudence, then the jurist is in need of citing as an evidence the acceptable to the exception of the later, something only possible utilizing the science of hadith."[105]
Western scholarship
Western scholarly criticism of hadith began in colonial India in the mid 19th century with the works of
Studies and authentication
Authenticity of a hadith is primarily verified by its chain of transmission (isnad). Because a chain of transmission can be a forgery, the status of authenticity given by Muslim scholars are not generally accepted by Orientalists or historians, who largely consider hadith to be unverifiable. Ignaz Goldziherr demonstrated that several hadiths do not fit the time of Muhammad chronologically and content-wise.[citation needed] As a result, Orientalists generally regard hadiths as having little value in understanding the life and times of the historical Muhammad but are instead valuable for understanding later theological developments in the Muslim community.[29][106] According to Bernard Lewis, "In the early Islamic centuries there could be no better way of promoting a cause, an opinion, or a faction than to cite an appropriate action or utterance of the Prophet."[107] To fight these forgeries, the elaborate tradition of hadith sciences was devised[107] to authenticate hadith known as ilm al jarh or ilm al dirayah[107][108] Hadith science use a number of methods of evaluation developed by early Muslim scholars in determining the veracity of reports attributed to Muhammad. This is achieved by:
- the individual narrators involved in its transmission,
- the scale of the report's transmission,
- analyzing the text of the report, and
- the routes through which the report was transmitted.
Based on these criteria, various classifications of hadith have been developed. The earliest comprehensive work in hadith science was
Biographical evaluation
Biographical analysis (‘ilm al-rijāl, lit. "science of people", also "science of Asma Al-Rijal or ‘ilm al-jarḥ wa al-taʻdīl ("science of discrediting and accrediting"), in which details about the transmitter are scrutinized. This includes analyzing their date and place of birth; familial connections; teachers and students; religiosity; moral behaviour; literary output; their travels; as well as their date of death. Based upon these criteria, the reliability (thiqāt) of the transmitter is assessed. It is also determined whether the individual was actually able to transmit the report, which is deduced from their contemporaneity and geographical proximity with the other transmitters in the chain.[110][109] Examples of biographical dictionaries include: Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisi's Al-Kamal fi Asma' al-Rijal, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani's Tahdhīb al-Tahdhīb and al-Dhahabi's Tadhkirat al-huffaz.[111]
Scale of transmission
Hadith on matters of importance needed to come through a number of independent chains,[109] this was known as the scale of transmission. Reports that passed through many reliable transmitters in many isnad up until their collection and transcription are known as mutawātir. These reports are considered the most authoritative as they pass through so many different routes that collusion between all of the transmitters becomes an impossibility. Reports not meeting this standard are known as aahad, and are of several different types.[26]
Analyzing text
According to Muhammad Shafi, Hadith whose isnad has been scrutinized then have their text or matn examined for:
- contradiction of the Quran;[109]
- contradiction of reliable hadith;[109]
- making sense, being logical;[109]
- being a report about the importance of an individual (or individuals) which is transmitted only through their supporters or family, and which is not supported by reports from other independent channels.[109]
Terminology: admissible and inadmissible hadiths
Having been evaluated, hadith may be categorized. Two categories are:
- ṣaḥīḥ (sound, authentic),
- ḍaʿīf (weak)
Other classifications include:
- ḥasan (good), which refers to an otherwise ṣaḥīḥ report suffering from minor deficiency, or a weak report strengthened due to numerous other corroborating reports;
- mawḍūʿ (fabricated),
- munkar (denounced) which is a report that is rejected due to the presence of an unreliable transmitter contradicting another more reliable narrator.[112]
Both sahīh and hasan reports are considered acceptable for usage in Islamic legal discourse.
Criticism
The major points of intra-Muslim criticism of the hadith literature is based in questions regarding its authenticity.[113] However, Muslim criticism of hadith is also based on theological and philosophical Islamic grounds of argument and critique.
Historically, some sects of the
With regard to clarity, Imam
Muslim scholars have a long history of questioning the hadith literature throughout Islamic history. Western academics also became active in the field later (in Hadith studies), starting in 1890, but much more often since 1950.[114]
Some Muslim critics of hadith even go so far as to completely reject them as the basic texts of Islam and instead adhere to the movement called
Among the most prominent Muslim critics of hadith in modern times are the Egyptian Rashad Khalifa, who became known as the "discoverer" of the Quran code (Code 19), the Malaysian Kassim Ahmad and the American-Turkish Edip Yüksel (Quranism).[118]
Western scholars, notably Ignaz Goldziher and Joseph Schacht among others, have criticised traditional
See also
- Categories of Hadith
- Criticism of hadith
- Hadith studies
- Hadith terminology
- Islamic honorifics
- Kutub al-Sittah
- List of fatwas
- List of hadith authors and commentators
- List of hadith collections
- Oral Torah
- Prophetic biography
- Sacred tradition
- Sharia
- Tafsir
References
Notes
- ^ The plural form of hadith in Arabic is aḥādīth, أحاديث, 'aḥādīth but hadith will be used instead in this article.
- Arabic: حديث, romanized: ḥadīth, Arabic pronunciation: [ħadiːθ]; pl. aḥādīth, أحاديث, ʾaḥādīṯ,[3][a] Arabic pronunciation: [ʔaħaːdiːθ], lit. 'talk' or 'discourse'
- ^ Muslims have come to blows over differences in the proper ritual movement in salat prayer. In the 18th century, a man was "almost beaten to death" in the great mosque of Delhi for raising his hands during salat in the manner that revivalist preacher/scholar Shah Waliullah Dehlawi had advocated.[45] The victim's assailants supported the doctrine of traditionalists of Hanafi fiqh which held that one's hands should be raised only once during the ritual prayer, while Waliullah held that madhhab schools of fiqh had ignored authentic hadith which made clear hands should be raised over ears multiple times during the praying of salat.[46]
- ^ "The full systems of Islamic theology and law are not derived primarily from the Quran. Muhammad's sunna was a second but far more detailed living scripture, and later Muslim scholars would thus often refer to Muhammad as 'The Possessor of Two Revelations'".[12]
- ^ See the references and discussion by Abdul Fattah Abu Ghuddah Thalathatu rasa'il fi ulum al-hadith; risalat abi dawud ila ahl makkata fi wasf sunanihi, pg 36, footnote. Beirut: Maktaba al-Matbu'at al-Islamiyah: 2nd ed 1426/2005.
- ^ The earliest book, Bukhari's Sahih was composed by 225/840 since he states that he spent sixteen years composing it (Hady al-Sari, introduction to Fath al-Bari, p. 489, Lahore: Dar Nashr al-Kutub al-Islamiya, 1981/1401) and also that he showed it to Yahya ibn Ma'in[94] who died in 233. Nasa'i, the last to die of the authors of the six books, died in 303/915. He probably completed this work a few decades before his death: by 275 or so.
- ^ Counting multiple narrations of the same texts as a single text, the number of hadiths each author has recorded roughly as follows: Bukhari (as in Zabidi's Mukhtasar of Bukhari's book) 2134, Muslim (as in Mundhiri's Mukhtasar of Muslim's book) 2200, Tirmidhi 4000, Abu Dawud 4000, Nasa'i 4800, Ibn Majah 4300. There is considerable overlap amongst the six books so that Ibn al-Athir's Jami' al-Usul, which gathers together the hadiths texts of all six books deleting repeated texts, has about 9500 hadiths.
Citations
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- ^ "Hadith". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
- ^ a b c d Brown 2009, p. 3.
- ISBN 978-0-89259-011-7. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
- ^ "Hans Wehr English&Arabic Dictionary".
- ISBN 978-0994240989. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
- ^ "Hadith". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.203
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.168
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.229
- ^ Forte, David F. (1978). "Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht" (PDF). Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review. 1: 2. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
- ^ a b J.A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p.18
- ^ Motzki, Harald (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World.1. Thmpson Gale. p. 285.
- ISBN 9780759104174.
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- ^ a b J.A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p.8
- ^ a b Aisha Y. Musa, The Qur’anists, Florida International University, accessed May 22, 2013.
- ^ ISBN 978-0878402243, Chapter 7, pp. 85-89
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7618-7017-3.
- ^ ISBN 9781847999429.
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- ^ "Surah Al-Jumu'a, Word by word translation of verse number 2-3 (Tafsir included) | الجمعة - Quran O". qurano.com. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
- ^ a b c Brown 2009, p. 4.
- ^ Brown 2009, p. 6-7.
- ^ Islahi, Amin Ahsan (1989) [transl. 2009]. Mabadi Tadabbur-i-Hadith (translated as: "Fundamentals of Hadith Interpretation") (in Urdu). Lahore: Al-Mawrid. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
- ^ ISBN 9781438126968.
- ^ The Future of Muslim Civilisation by Ziauddin Sardar, 1979, page 26.
- ISSN 0928-9380.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-118-63851-4, retrieved 26 June 2024
- ^ "Mawrid Reader". ejtaal.net.
- ^ al-Kuliyat by Abu al-Baqa’ al-Kafawi, p. 370; Mu'assasah l-Risalah. This last phrase is quoted by al-Qasimi in Qawaid al-Tahdith, p. 61; Dar al-Nafais.
- ^ Lisan al-Arab, by Ibn Manthour, vol. 2, p. 350; Dar al-Hadith edition.
- ISBN 978-1-902350-04-2.
- ^ Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Muhammad?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 16 April 2018.[dead link]
- ^ "The Major Difference Between the Shi'a and the Sunni". Ahlul Bayt Digital Library Project. 12 November 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- ^ a b Schacht, Joseph (1959) [1950]. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press. p. 3.
- ^ Islam, Joseph A. "THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HADITH AND SUNNA". The Quran and Its Message. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (22 March 2011). "What is Shari'a?". ABC Religion and Ethics. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ISBN 9780674737075. Retrieved 26 October 2019.
- ^ Ibn Warraq, "Studies on Muhammad and the Rise of Islam", 2000: p.66
- ^ J.A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p.94
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: chapter 100
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: chapters 117-122
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: chapters 127,128,310
- ^ J.A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p.65
- ^ Abu Hibban; Abu Khuzaimah Ansari (28 May 2015). "Shaikh Shah Waliullahs Dehlawi's (1176H) Inclination in Fiqh and his Hanafiyyah – al-Allamah Shaikh Muhammad Ismaeel Salafi (1378H)". ahl ul hadeeth. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
- ISBN 9781108225724. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ Schacht, Joseph (1959) [1950]. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press. p. 19.
- ^ Shafi'i. "Kitab Ikhtilaf Malid wal-Shafi'i, 57, 148". Kitab al-Umm vol. vii. p. 248.
- ^ see also Haddad, GF; Hajj Gibril. "The Hadith: "My Companions Are Like The Stars"". living islam.
- ^ Ignaz Goldziher, The Zahiris: Their Doctrine and their History, trans and ed. Wolfgang Behn (Leiden, 1971), 20 ff
- ^ a b Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.7
- ^ Schacht, Joseph (1959) [1950]. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press. p. 12.
- ^ Shafi'i. "Introduction. Kitab Ikhtilaf Malid wal-Shafi'i". Kitab al-Umm vol. vii.
- ^ Schacht, Joseph (1959) [1950]. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press. p. 4.
- ]
- ^ Schacht, Joseph (1959) [1950]. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press. p. 22.
- ^ Zurqani (d.1122 (1310). Commentary on Malik's Muwatta', 4 vols. Vol. i. Cairo. p. 8.
{{cite book}}
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- ^ Sayeed, Asma (20 October 2023). "Hadith". Encyclopedia of Britannica Online.
- ^ J.A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p.6
- ISBN 3110803593.
- ^ Glasse, Cyril (2001) [1989]. The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Altamira. p. 159.
- ^ "Qu'est-ce que le hadith Qudsi ?". aslamna.info.
- ^ Related by al-Bukhari, Muslim, an-Nasa'i and Ibn Majah.
- ISBN 9780991430864.
- ^ Tadrib al-Rawi, vol. 1, pp. 39–41 with abridgement.
- ^ Ilm al-Rijal wa Ahimiyatih, by Mualami, p. 16, Dar al-Rayah.
- ^ "Religions. Sunni and Shi'a". BBC. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- ^ ^ Tirmidhi, "‘Ilm," 12.
- ^ ^ Collected in the Musnad of Ahmad (10\15-6\ 6510 and also nos. 6930, 7017 and 1720), Sunan Abu Dawud (Mukhtasar Sunan Abi Dawud (5\246\3499) and elsewhere.
- ^ Roman, provincial and Islamic law, Patricia Crone, p2
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- ^ Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.11
- ISBN 978-0521570770. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
- S2CID 162187154.
- ^ Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.12
- ^ Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford, 1950, repre. 1964) esp. 6-20 and 133-137): Ignaz Goldziher, The Zahiris: Their Doctrine and their History, trans and ed. Wolfgang Behn (Leiden, 1971), 20 ff...)]
- ^ J. SCHACHT, An Introduction to Islamic Law (1964), supra note 5, at 47
- ^ Forte, David F. (1978). "Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht" (PDF). Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review. 1: 13. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
- ^ al-Shafii ‘’Kitab al-Risala’’, ed. Muhammad Shakir (Cairo, 1940), 84
- ^ Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996: p.8
- ^ N. Abbott, Studies In Arabic Literary Papyri: Qur'anic Commentary And Tradition, 1967, Volume II, University of Chicago Press: Chicago (USA), p. 114.
- ^ "PERF No. 731: The Earliest Manuscript Of Malik's Muwatta' Dated To His Own Time". www.islamic-awareness.org. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
- ^ Martin, Matthew (2013). Mu'tazila - use of reason in Islamic theology. Amazon. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
- ISBN 0873952340
- ^ "PERF No. 665: The Earliest Extant Manuscript Of The Sirah Of Prophet Muhammad By Ibn Hisham". www.islamic-awareness.org. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
- ^ N. Abbott, Studies In Arabic Literary Papyri: Historical Texts, 1957, Volume I, University of Chicago Press: Chicago (USA), p. 61.
- ^ Islam – the Straight Path, John Eposito, p.81
- ISBN 978-3-447-02578-2.
- ISBN 978-3-447-01469-4.
- OCLC 1343008841.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ David-Weill, Jean (1939–1948). Le Djâmiʻ dʹIbn Wahb. Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale.
- ^ (Hady al-Sari, introduction to Fath al-Bari, p. 8
- ^ Muqaddimah Ibn al-Salah, p. 160 Dar al-Ma’aarif edition
- ISBN 0-202-30778-6
- ^ Scott C. Lucas, Constructive Critics, Ḥadīth Literature, and the Articulation of Sunnī Islam, p. 106. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2004.
- ^ Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by William McGuckin de Slane. Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Sold by Institut de France and Royal Library of Belgium. Vol. 3, p. 5.
- ^ Muhammad Zubayr Siddiqi, Hadith Literature, Cambridge, Islamic Texts Society, 1993, edited and revised by Abdal Hakim Murad.
- ^ Momen, Moojan, Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.174.
- ISBN 9781904063117.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-9890016-2-5.
- ^ "Surah Al-Qiyamah | 2 of 4 | al-Q̈iyamah | Chapter: 75 - Quran O". qurano.com. Retrieved 16 September 2022.
- ^ Ulum al-Hadith by Ibn al-Salah, p. 5, Dar al-Fikr, with the verification of Nur al-Din al-‘Itr.
- ^ Ibn Hajar, Ahmad. al-Nukat ala Kitab ibn al-Salah, vol. 1, p. 90. Maktabah al-Furqan.
- ^ Lutz Berger "Islamische Theologie", Facultas Verlags- und Buchhandels AG 2010 isbn 978-3-8252-3303-7 p. 29
- ^ ISBN 9780817912963. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- ^ Nasr, S.H. Ideals and Realities of Islam, 1966, p.80
- ^ a b c d e f g Shafi, Mohammad. "The HADITH - How it was Collected and Compiled" (PDF). Dar al-Islam. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 26 October 2019.
- ^ Berg (2000) p. 8
- ^ See:
- Robinson (2003) pp. 69–70;
- Lucas (2004) p. 15
- ^ See:
- "Hadith," Encyclopedia of Islam Online;
- "Hadith," Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world.
- JSTOR 1596086.
- ^ See Western scholarship section in Criticism of hadith re: Ignatz Goldziher, Josef Schacht, Patricia Crone, John Esposito, and Reza Aslan in particular.
- ^ "DeRudKR - Kap. 27: Was bedeutet 'Gehorcht dem Gesandten'?". Alrahman (in German). 6 March 2006.
- ^ Dr Rashad Khalifa (2001), Quran, Hadith and Islam (in German), Dr. Rashad Khalifa Ph.D., retrieved 12 June 2021
- ^ "10 Forgotten Sects of Major Religions". 8 April 2016.
- ^ Musa: Ḥadīth as scripture. 2008, S. 85.
- ^ N.J. Coulson, "European Criticism of Hadith Literature, in Cambridge History of Arabic Literature: Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, editor A.F.L. Beeston et al. (Cambridge, 1983) "[the authentication of hadith] was confined to a careful examination of the chain of transmitters who narrated the report and not report itself. 'Provided the chain was uninterrupted and its individual links deemed trustworthy persons, the Hadith was accepted as binding law. There could, by the terms of the religious faith itself, be no questioning of the content of the report; for this was the substance of divine revelation and therefore not susceptible to any form of legal or historical criticism"
- ^ Schacht, Joseph (1950). The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford: Clarendon. p. 163.
- ISSN 1478-0542.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-118-63851-4, retrieved 29 June 2024
- ^ Azmi, Muhammad Mustafa (1996). On Schacht's Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Islamic Texts Society. p. 154.
Bibliography
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- ISBN 978-1780744209. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
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- Ibn Warraq, ed. (2000). "1. Studies on Muhammad and the Rise of Islam". The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. Prometheus. pp. 15–88.
- Lucas, S. (2004). Constructive Critics, Hadith Literature, and the Articulation of Sunni Islam. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-13319-4.
- Muhyi ad-Din Abu Zakariyya Yahya bin Sharaf an-Nawawi (1975). Riyadh as-Salihin [Gardens of the Righteous]. Mauhammad Zafulla Khan, translator. New York: Olive Branch Press. Retrieved 18 May 2018. [dead link]
- Robinson, C. F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62936-5.
- Robson, J. "Hadith". In P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; ISSN 1573-3912.
- Schacht, Joseph (1950). The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford: Clarendon
- Senturk, Recep (2005). Narrative Social Structure: Anatomy of the Hadith Transmission Network, 610-1505. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804752077.
- ISBN 9788185990736. Archived from the originalon 10 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
Further reading
- [Saeed, Abu Hayyan, Hadiths Rejection .. What are the facts ? (December 17, 2023). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4666920 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4666920]
- Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, Barnes & Noble ISBN 9780359672653)
- English Translation of over 60,000 Basic Ahadith Books from Ahl Al-Bayt, Online Shia Islamic Articles, Books, Khutbat, Calendar, Duas ( including Bihar ul Anwaar})
- 1000 Qudsi Hadiths: An Encyclopedia of Divine Sayings; New York: Arabic Virtual Translation Center; (2012) ISBN 978-1-4700-2994-4
- Gauthier H.A. Joynboll (PhD) (2013). Encyclopedia of Canonical Hadith. London and Boston: .
- Lucas, S. (2002). The Arts of Hadith Compilation and Criticism. University of Chicago. OCLC 62284281.
- Musa, A. Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008. ISBN 0-230-60535-4
- Fred M. Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins (1998)
- Tottoli, Roberto, "Hadith", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp. 231–236.
Online
- Hadith Islam, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by Albert Kenneth Cragg, Gloria Lotha, Marco Sampaolo, Matt Stefon, Noah Tesch and Adam Zeidan
- Hadith by Topics and advice of PBUH Archived 22 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
External links
- Hadith – Search by keyword and find hadith by narrator
- New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
.
- Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. .