Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali | |
---|---|
Nawab of Mysore Sarvadhikari of Mysore Dalavayi of Mysore Shams-ul-mulk Amir-ud-daulah | |
Krishnaraja Wodeyar II (as Maharaja) | |
Successor | Tipu Sultan |
Born | c.1720 Budikote, Kingdom of Mysore (modern-day |
Burial | |
Spouse | Fathima Fakhr-un-Nisa |
House | Mysore |
Father | Fath Muhammad |
Mother | Lal Bi |
Religion | Islam |
Military career | |
Allegiance |
|
Service/ | Mysore |
Rank |
|
Battles/wars |
Hyder Ali (Haidarālī; c. 1720 – 7 December 1782) was the
Though illiterate, Hyder Ali concluded
Ancestry
According to some historians, Ali is thought to be of
Early life
The exact date of Hyder Ali's birth is not known with certainty. He was born to
Hyder Ali was born in Budikote, Kolar district; he was
Rise to power
Carnatic Wars
In 1748,
Both sides were supported by other local leaders, and French and British forces were also involved.
Devaraja had started vesting more military authority in his brother, and in 1749 Nanjaraja marched the Mysorean army in support of Nasir Jung. The army went to
The fort was held by Muzaffar Jung's forces and the siege was conducted by the Marquis de Bussy.[17] During the successful eight-month siege, Hyder Ali and his brother distinguished themselves, and were rewarded by the dalwai with enlarged commands.[16]
Although Hyder Ali was from Mysore his early loyalties were to the "Nizam of Hyderabad", through whom Hyder Ali and his companions became Sepoys in the Deccan with partial investiture from the "Great Moghul" of that period[citation needed].
By 1755 Hyder Ali commanded 3,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry, and was reported to be enriching himself on campaigns by plunder.
In these early wars he also came to dislike and mistrust
Throughout the
Skills
Early in his career, Hyder Ali retained as one of his chief financial assistants a Brahmin named Khande Rao[citation needed]. Hyder Ali, who was illiterate, was reported to be blessed with a prodigious memory and numerical acumen.
Hyder Ali could rival or outperform expert accountants with his great arithmetic skills and worked to develop a system, with Rao, that included checks and balances so sophisticated that all manner of income, including plunder of physical goods of all types, could be accounted for with little possibility for fraud or embezzlement.[23]
This financial management may have played a role in Hyder Ali's rise in power.[23]
Control of Srirangapatna
In 1757 Hyder Ali was called to Srirangapatna to support Devaraja against threats from Hyderabad and the Marathas. Upon his arrival he found the Mysorean army in disarray and near mutiny over pay. While Devaraja bought his way out of the threats to Srirangapatna, Hyder Ali arranged for the army to be paid and arrested the ringleaders of the mutiny.[24]
Campaigns against Calicut
In 1757, to resist the invasion of the
Hyder Ali captures Bangalore (1758)
In 1758 Hyder Ali successfully forced the Marathas to lift a siege of Bangalore. Hyder Ali's forces entered the city, thus capturing it.
By 1759 Hyder Ali was in command of the entire Mysorean army.[24]
Siege of Channapatna
In the year 1759, Balaji Baji Rao launched a military expedition against Bangalore and Channapatna, with Gopal Hari and Anand Rao leading the forces. However, Hyder Ali managed to defeat the much larger Maratha army with a smaller force. As a result, Channapatna and the surrounding districts were incorporated into the Mysore territory.
Nawab of Mysore (1759)
The young King of Mysore Krishnaraja Wodeyar II rewarded Hyder Ali's performance by granting him the title of Fath Hyder Bahadur or Nawab Hyder Ali Khan.[29][30] Hyder Ali is also known to be the first ruler of Mysore to be granted the title of Nawab, thus it can be said that he was briefly the "Nawab of Mysore" by 1759.
Because of the ongoing conflicts with the Marathas the Mysorean treasury was virtually bankrupted, prompting the queen mother to force into exile Nanjaraj, who had assumed the position of dalwai upon his brother's death in 1758.[26][28] Hyder Ali was a beneficiary of this action, rising in influence in the court.[28]
Deposition of Khande Rao
In 1760 the queen mother conspired with Khande Rao, who had gone into the raja's service, to oust Hyder Ali. He was precipitously forced out of Seringapatam, leaving his family, including his son Tipu Sultan, under house arrest.[28][31]
The sudden departure left Hyder Ali with few resources. He may have been fortuitously aided at this time by the faraway Third Battle of Panipat, in which the Marathas suffered a major defeat, Jan 1761. Because of this loss, the Marathas withdrew forces from Mysore and Hyder Ali's brother-in-law Makdum Ali chased them into Bidnur and Sunda.[32][33]
Hyder Ali soon consolidated his strength by placing Mirza Sahib as the commander of Sira, Ibrahim Ali Khan in Bangalore and Amin Sahib his cousin in Basnagar. Soon afterward Hyder Ali marched alongside Makdum Ali's forces, which numbered about 6,000, along with the 3,000 men from his garrison at Bangalore, toward Seringapatam.[31]
They clashed with Khande Rao's forces before reaching the capital. Khande Rao, with 11,000 men, won the battle, and Hyder Ali was forced to apply to the exiled Nanjaraj for support. Nanjaraj gave him command of his army, and the title of Dalwai.[33][34]
With this force Hyder Ali again moved out against Khande Rao. The two armies faced each other again, but a deception by Hyder Ali convinced Khande Rao to flee instead of engaging in battle. Hyder Ali sent letters appearing to be from Nanjaraj to some of Khande Rao's commanders, confirming their agreement to hand Khande Rao over to Hyder Ali. Fearing a conspiracy, Khande Rao fled into Seringapatam.
After a minor battle against the now-leaderless army, Hyder Ali took over most of its remnants and surrounded Seringapatam.[35] The ensuing negotiations left Hyder Ali in nearly complete military control of Mysore. Concessions that he extracted included the surrender of Khande Rao, who Hyder Ali imprisoned in Bangalore.[36]
Ruler of Mysore
Hyder Ali became king of Mysore in 1761 after overthrowing the prime minister and making the king, Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, a prisoner in his own palace.[37]
Hyder Ali formally styled himself
He was very cautious in his diplomacy with the Nizam of Hyderabad, who was, according to an official Mughal firman, the sovereign of all Muslim-ruled territories in southern India.[38]
The English and the
-
Seal of Mysore.
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The flag of theSultanate of Mysore at the entrance into the fort of Bangalore.
Expansion and alliances
Over the next few years Hyder expanded his territories to the north. Two key acquisitions were
The taking of Bednore included several ports on the Malabar coast, including Mangalore.[45] Hyder used these ports to establish a small navy. The documentary record on the navy is fragmentary;[46] Portuguese records indicate that the fleet was launched sometime between 1763 and 1765.[47] It was apparently officered by Europeans, and its first admiral was an Englishman;[47] by 1768 its admiral was a Mysorean cavalry officer named Ali Bey (or Lutf Ali Beg),[48] apparently chosen by Hyder because he did not trust the European captains.[47]
Hyder had amicable relations with the Christian population in Mangalore, which had long been under Portuguese influence and had a sizeable Roman Catholic population,[49] and with Christians in general. He had a very close friendship with two Goan Catholic clergymen, Bishop Noronha and Fr. Joachim Miranda,[50] and allowed a Protestant missionary to live at his court.[51] Hyder's army also included Catholic soldiers, and he allowed Christians to build a church at Seringapatam, where French generals used to offer prayers and priests used to visit. Mangalorean historian A. L. P. D'Souza mentions that Hyder also had Christians in his administration. Pursuant to treaties concluded with the Portuguese, he also allowed Portuguese priests to settle disputes among Christians.[52] However, many Mangaloreans (not just Christians) disliked him for the heavy tax burden he imposed on them.[53]
Hyder Ali attacks the Maratha Confederacy
The Maratha Confederacy had just been routed at the Third Battle of Panipat by Ahmad Shah Durrani and the Mughals had been restored in the year 1761.
The Maratha Empire was very vulnerable and feeble to any attack and the Peshwa's power had been almost eliminated in all of Northern India.
At this point in his life Hyder Ali decided to go to war with the Marathas and put an end to the threat they posed to his power.
He therefore attacked the Maratha-aligned Rani of Bednore. She had appealed to the
Since Savanur was a tributary of the Marathas, the Peshwa, Madhavrao I, countered with a strong force and defeated Hyder near Rattihalli and in decisive Battle of Jadi Hanwati . Following the victory the Marathas restored their power under the reign of Madhavrao Peshwa. The Maratha victory forced Hyder to retreat; he had to abandon Bednore, although he was able to remove its treasures to Seringapatam. Hyder paid 35 lakhs rupees in tribute to end the war, and returned most of his gains, although he did retain Sira.[55][56]
In 1766 Hyder Ali
Mysore's titular ruler Krishnaraja died in April 1766, while Hyder was in Malabar. Hyder had left orders that Krishnaraja's son Nanjaraja Wodeyar be invested should that happen, and he only later came to formally pay his respects to the new rajah. He took advantage of this opportunity to engage in a sort of house cleaning: the raja's palace was plundered, and its staff reduced to the point where virtually everyone employed there was also a spy for Hyder Ali.[59]
First Anglo-Mysore War
After the
As the power struggle between Mysore and the Peshwa continued it soon began to involve the British and other European trading companies.[citation needed]
Being himself a former ally of the French, Hyder Ali expected the support of the British against the Marathas, but such support never materialized.
In 1766 Mysore began to become drawn into territorial and diplomatic disputes between the Nizam of Hyderabad and the
In early 1768, the Bombay Presidency in Bombay organised an expedition to Mysore's Malabar coast territories. Hyder Ali's fleet, which the British reported as numbering about ten ships, deserted en masse, apparently because the captains were unhappy with the oustering of their British admirals and some even demanded the return of Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa II, but Hyder Ali chose a cavalry commander Lutf Ali Beg as fleet commander.[70] Owing to a British bluff, Lutf Ali Beg also withdrew much of the Mangalore garrison to move on what he perceived to be the British target, Onore. The British consequently captured Mangalore with minimal opposition in February.[71] This activity, combined with the loss of the Nizam as an ally, prompted Hyder Ali to withdraw from the Carnatic, and move with speed to Malabar. Dispatching his son Tipu with an advance force, Hyder Ali followed, and eventually re-took Mangalore and the other ports held by the over-extended British forces.[71][72] He also levied additional taxes as punishment against local malabari Nair chieftains which were then stripped of rights and authority.[72]
After his reconquest, Hyder Ali learned that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore, behaviour he considered treasonous.[75] He summoned a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore to suggest an appropriate punishment to impose on the Mangalorean Catholics for their treachery. The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who helped the British as a typical punishment for the betrayal of one's sovereign in Catholic nations. But Hyder Ali exhibited a diplomatic stance and instead imprisoned those Christians who were condemned for treachery.[76] He afterwards opened negotiations with the Portuguese, and reached an agreement with them that removed suspicion from the clergy and other Christians.[77] The Mangalorean Catholic community flourished during the rest of Hyder Ali's reign.[78]
During Hyder Ali's absence from the Carnatic, the British recovered many places that Hyder Ali had taken and only weakly garrisoned, and advanced as far south as
On 3 October, Hyder Ali, while moving his army from Guuramkonda back toward Bangalore, surprised a small garrison of
Hyder Ali then raised additional forces in Mysore and went on the offensive. In November 1768 he split his army into two, and crossed the ghats into the Carnatic, regaining control of many minor posts held by the British. En route to Erode Hyder Ali overwhelmed one contingent of British, who were sent as prisoners to Seringapatam when it was established that one of its officers was serving in violation of a parole agreement. After rapidly establishing control over much of the southern Carnatic, his march approached Madras.[89] This prompted the British to send an envoy to discuss peace; because of Hyder Ali's insistence that the Nawab of the Carnatic be excluded from the negotiations, they went nowhere. Hyder Ali then surprised Company authorities by taking a picked force of 6,000 cavalry and a small number of infantry, and made in three days a forced march of 130 miles (210 km) to the gates of Madras.[90]
This show of force compelled the company to negotiate further. Hyder Ali, who was seeking diplomatic leverage against the Marathas, wanted an alliance of mutual defence and offence.[91] The Company refused to accede to an offensive military treaty; the treaty signed at Madras on 29 March 1769, restored the status quo ante bellum, except for Mysore's acquisition of Karur, and also included language that each side would help the other defend its territory. In summarising Hyder Ali's conduct of the war, biographer Lewin Bowring notes that he "evinced high qualities as a tactician and the sagacity of a born diplomatist."[92]
Arab, Persian and Turkish relations
When Hyder took over the Malabar territories, he took advantage of the coastal access to develop relations with trading partners overseas. To this end he established port tariffs that were biased against European traders and preferential for Mysorean and Arab traders. Beginning in 1770 he sent ambassadors to
In a 1774 embassy to
Nursullah Khan, Hyder's ambassador, had more success in Muscat, where a trading house was established in 1776.
During the final years of his reign Hyder Ali also planned to send an embassy to the Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III, but it was his son Tipu Sultan who succeeded in making direct contact with Istanbul.[93]
Second war with the Maratha Confederacy
The peace with the Marathas was short-lived. The Peshwa
In 1776 the young Raja Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII died. To choose a successor, Hyder had all of the children of the royal family brought together, and watched them play. A child, also named Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, chose to play with a jewelled dagger, and was supposedly selected on that basis as the new Raja of Mysore.,[104]
By March 1775, the leadership situation at
Second Anglo-Mysore War
During the lengthy conflict with the Marathas, Hyder had several times requested the assistance of the East India Company, and it had each time been refused, in part due to the influence at Madras, of Hyder's enemy, the Nawab of Arcot.
In 1771, Maratha envoys had approached Hyder with a proposal to ally against the company, with the goal of wresting control of eastern India from their rule. Since Hyder was at the time still attempting alliance with the British, he informed them of this offer, noting that he thought the Marathas would gain too much power and even threaten his own position under those circumstances.[111] The Marathas, still at war with the British, renewed an offer of alliance in 1779. In this case, the alliance was to include the Nizam.[109] His decision to join this alliance was prompted by two British actions. The first was the British capture by capitulation of the west-coast port of Mahé, part of a concerted effort by the British to capture all French outposts after the 1778 French entry into the American Revolutionary War. Hyder received much of his French-supplied equipment through this French-controlled port, and had provided troops for its defence.[112] Furthermore, the action had provoked the Nairs on the Malabar coast to rise in rebellion again, although Hyder had quickly put this down. The second offence was the movement of British troops through territory under his control (and also other territory controlled by the Nizam) from Madras to Guntur. There was a skirmish in the hills, and the British detachment ended up retreating to Madras.[113]
Hyder Ali began rebuilding his navy in 1778. Employing Joze Azelars, a Dutchman, he had built eight
The alliance planned to make virtually simultaneous attacks on British holdings all throughout India, while the Marathas agreed to honour Hyder's claims to territories he currently held north of the Tungabhadra River and reduced the amount of tribute he was required to pay under earlier agreements. Hyder expected to receive assistance from the French, especially in the Carnatic, the territory he sought to conquer.[115] However, diplomatic actions by Governor Warren Hastings and the Company successfully convinced both the Nizam and the Marathas not to take up arms, and Hyder ended up fighting the war on his own.[116]
He successfully gained alliances with
service.-
A British illustration of Sayed Sahib leading Hyder Ali's forces during the Siege of Cuddalore.
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TheBattle of Pollilur, where the forces of Hyder Ali effectively used Mysorean rockets and Rocket artilleryagainst closely massed East India Company troops.
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Pierre André de Suffren ally of Hyder Ali.
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Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau ally of Hyder Ali.
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French Admiral Suffren (with the support of Hyder Ali) comes to the aid of Reynier van Vlissingen's Dutch forces against the Admiral Edward Hughes.
Descent upon the Carnatic
The army Hyder assembled was one of the largest seen in southern India, estimated to number 83,000.
Shortly after the outbreak of hostilities, Governor Hastings had sent General Sir Eyre Coote south from Bengal to take charge of British forces opposing Hyder. He arrived at Madras in November to take command from Munro.[121] Coote marched into the Carnatic, and eventually occupied Cuddalore.[122] After being re-supplied there, he besieged Chidambram, where an assault on the fort was repulsed.[123]
Hyder had in the mean-time descended into
With General Coote at Cuddalore, Hyder then made a forced march to interpose his army between Chidambram and Cuddalore, cutting Coote's supply line. Coote marched to face him, and won a decisive victory in the Battle of Porto Novo on 1 July 1781; Coote estimated that Hyder lost 10,000 men in the battle.[126] Hyder then dispatched Tipu in an attempt to prevent the junction of Coote's army with reinforcements from Bengal.[127] This failed, and in late August the two armies met again at Pollilur, chosen by Hyder as a place to make a stand, because it was the site of his victory over Baillie the previous year.[128] Hyder was defeated this time, although the battle was not decisive.[129] While Coote re-grouped and searched for provisions, Hyder took the opportunity to besiege Vellore.[130] Madras authorities convinced the ageing Coote to put off his retirement and relieve the fortress there.[131] Hyder and Coote met in battle at Sholinghur, near Vellore. Hyder's artillery was ineffective, and the re-provisioned Vellore, which had been on the brink of surrender.[132]
In January 1782, General Coote, his health failing, again set out to re-provision Vellore. Hyder did not prevent the re-supply, but shadowed the British back toward
Death
He was a bold, an original, and an enterprising commander, skilful in tactics and fertile in resources, full of energy and never desponding in defeat. He was singularly faithful to his engagements and straightforward in his policy towards the British...his name is always mentioned in Mysore with respect, if not with admiration.
Bowring,[139]
Hyder, who had suffered from a cancerous growth on his back, died in his camp on 6 December 1782. Some other accounts record it as 7 December 1782 and some historical accounts in the Persian language record the death in dates ranging from Hijri 1 Moharram 1197 to Hijri 4 Moharram 1197 in the Islamic calendar. The differences in recorded dates may be due to the lunar calendar and the differences in moon sightings in the surrounding kingdoms.
Hyder's advisers tried to keep his death a secret until Tipu could be recalled from the Malabar coast. Upon learning of his father's death Tipu immediately returned to Chittoor to assume the reins of power. His accession was not without problems: he had to put down an attempt by an uncle to place Tipu's brother Abdul Karim on the throne.
Hyder Ali was buried at the
In 1763, Hyder Ali and
Ali Raja returned to Mysore to pay homage to Hyder Ali, presenting him the captured and blinded
Hyder Ali, like his son Tipu Sultan protected foreign merchant ships, and the Mysore navy is even known to have protected and convoyed Chinese merchant ships in the region.[144][145][146]
In 1768, Hyder Ali lost two
On 19 February 1775, two of Hyder Ali's ketches attacked HMS Seahorse, which drove them off after a brief exchange of fire.
On 8 December 1780
Military rocket innovations
Hyder Ali was an innovator in the military use of rockets, which were used against positions and territories held by the East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. Although rocket technology originated in China and had made its way to India and Europe by the 13th century, development of accurate cannons had sidelined rockets as a military technology in Europe.[149] Rocket technology was already in use when Hyder's father served (he commanded a company of 50 rocketmen), but it was Hyder who improved them and significantly expanded their use in the military. Technological innovations included the use of high-quality iron casing (better than was then available in Europe) for the combustion chamber, enabling the use of higher-powered explosive charges. He also organised companies of rocketmen who were experienced in aiming rockets based on the size of the rocket and the distance to the target. Rockets could also be mounted on carts that improved their mobility and made possible the firing of large numbers of them all at once.[13] Rockets developed by Hyder and Tipu led to a renaissance of interest in the technology in Britain, where William Congreve, supplied with rocket cases from Mysore, developed what became known as Congreve rockets in the early 19th century.[150]
In Hyder's time the Mysorean army had a rocket corps of as many as 1,200 men, which Tipu increased to 5,000. At the 1780
Economic policy
The peak of Mysore's economic power was under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the post-Mughal era of the mid-late 18th century. They embarked on an ambitious program of economic development, aiming increase the wealth and revenue of Mysore.[152]
Family
Details are sketchy on Hyder's personal life. He had at least two wives. His second wife was Fatima, the mother of Tipu, his brother Karim, and a daughter.
See also
- Tipu Sultan
- Husain Ali Khan Bahadur
- Mughal weapons
- Nawab of Savanur
- Arakkal Kingdom
Notes
- ISBN 8187879572. Archivedfrom the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
- ^ Robson, Francis (1786). The Life Of Hyder Ally: With an Account of His Usurpation of the Kingdom of Mysore. London: S Hooper, High Holborn. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
- ISBN 8187879572. Archivedfrom the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
- ^ a b c Nadvi, Muhammad Ilyas (2004). Tipu Sultan, A life History. pp. 29–30. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023.
As per the research conducted by the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Tipu belonged to the Arab race, more particularly the Quraish clan. On the contrary, Mahmood...has written that his forefathers had links with Punjab. In this respect, many historians call him Punjabi too.
- ISBN 9781108417747. Archivedfrom the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
...the renowned Muslim dynasty claimed Quraysh origins, and consequently from the same tribe as the Prophet Muhammad, but was otherwise almost entirely undistinguished and parvenu...
- ISBN 9781905837878. Archivedfrom the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
Tipu's ancestry was predominantly Arab, specifically Navayat
- ISBN 978-81-87879-57-2. Archivedfrom the original on 13 March 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
...his ancestors arrived in India through sea, instead of following usual land route through northwest...came to Gulbarga from Delhi with his son Muhammad Ali during the reign of Muhammad Adil Shah.
- ^ Olson & Shadle 1996, p. 773: Hyder Ali was originally a Punjabi adventurer in the army of the Hindu king of Mysore.
- ^ Dalrymple 2019, p. 264: The second power was a new force, which in the 1770s was just emerging and beginning to flex its military muscles: the Mysore Sultanate of Haidar Ali and his formidable warrior son, Tipu Sultan. Haidar, who was of Punjabi origin, had risen in the ranks of the Mysore army, where he introduced many of the innovations he had learned from observing French troops at work in the Carnatic Wars.
- ^ Moon 1989, p. 137: Haidar Ali, a Punjabi by origin and unable to read or write, had risen from the ranks in the Mysore army to the position of Commander-in-Chief and had then made himself complete master of this Hindu kingdom.
- ^ Gott 2022, p. 47: Haidar Ali was an illiterate Punjabi who rose from the ranks of the Mysore army to become its commander.
- ^ a b c Bowring, p. 13
- ^ a b Narasimha et al, p. 120
- ^ Rao Punganuri, p. 1
- ^ Brittlebank, p. 18
- ^ a b Rao Punganuri, p. 2
- ^ Bowring, p. 23
- ^ Bowring, p. 26
- ^ Bowring, p. 27
- ^ a b Brittlebank, p. 22
- ^ Ramaswami, p. 183
- ^ Ramaswami, pp. 182,204–209
- ^ a b Wilks, pp. 217–218
- ^ a b Bowring, p. 29
- ^ a b K. V. Krishna Iyer (1938). Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Norman Printing Bureau, Kozhikode.
- ^ a b Rao Punganuri, p.5
- ISBN 978-8187139690. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d Brittlebank, p. 19
- ^ Bowring, p. 30
- ^ Rao Punganuri, p. 6
- ^ a b Rao Punganuri, p. 8
- ^ Marathas and the English Company 1707–1818 by Sanderson Beck Archived 25 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine. San.beck.org. Retrieved on 4 March 2012.
- ^ a b Bowring, p. 32
- ^ Rao Punganuri, p. 9
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- ^ Rao Punganuri, p. 10
- ^ "Hyder Ali | emperor of India | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
- ^ Rao Punganuri, p. 47
- ^ Bowring, p. 34
- ^ Bowring, p. 38
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- ^ a b Brittlebank, p. 21
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- ^ Rao Punganuri, p. 13
- ^ Sen, p. 147
- ^ a b c Sen, p. 149
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- ^ "Christianity in Mangalore". Diocese of Mangalore. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 30 July 2008.
- ^ Chitnis, pp. 53–55
- ^ a b Bowring, p. 41
- ^ Rao Punganuri, p. 15
- ^ a b Bowring, pp. 44–46
- ^ Lethbridge, p. 94
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- ^ a b c Bowring, p. 49
- ^ a b Wilks, p. 312
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- ^ Wilks, pp. 328–329
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- ^ a b Wilks, p. 331
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- ^ "HISTORY – MARATHA PERIOD". Nasik District Gazetteer. Archived from the original on 31 August 2010. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
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- ^ a b Bowring, p. 93
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- ^ a b Subramanian, p. 64
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- ^ Wilks, p. 502
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- ^ Bowring, Lewin Bentham (1893). Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan and the struggle with the Musalman powers of the South. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
- ^ History – Raghunath Rai – Google Books. Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved on 4 March 2012.
- ^ Joseph, Baiju (21 July 2012). "Gumbaz – The Burial Chamber of Tipu Sultan, the Tiger of Mysore". The Home of Nostalgic Moments A Photographic Journey & Book Mark of Memories. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
- ^ de la Tour, p. 63
- ^ Kuzhippalli Skaria Mathew, Indian Ocean and cultural interaction, A.D. 1400-1800, (Pondicherry University Press, 1996), 196;"The Ali Rajas became the allies of Haider Ali and carried out a successful naval expedition in Maldives in 1763."
- ^ de la Tour, p. 64
- ^ "Foreign merchants were granted protection, and the Mysore navy protected the Chinese merchants ships from piracy. - Google Search". Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
- ISBN 9788173070754. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
- ^ "Foreign merchants were granted protection, and the Mysore navy protected the Chinese merchants ships from piracy. - Google Search". Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
- ^ ISBN 9781136790874. Archivedfrom the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
- ]
- ^ Narasimha et al, p. 118
- ^ Narasimha et al, p. 122
- ^ Narasimha et al, pp. 120–121
- ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0
- ^ a b Bowring, p. 77
- ^ Punganuri Rao, p. 3
- ^ a b Punganuri Rao, p. 28
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Further reading
- Gidwani, Bhagwan S (1976). The Sword of Tipu Sultan: A historical novel about the life and legend of Tipu Sultan of India. Allied Publishers. OCLC 173807200.
- S, Rajendu (2017). Mysore Padayottam, 250 years. a set of six documents written during Hyder Ali's invasion to Malabar. Vallathol Vidya Peetham.