Hama
Hama
حَمَاة | |
---|---|
City | |
UTC+3 (EEST) | |
Area code(s) | Country code: 963 City code: 33 |
Geocode | C2987 |
Climate | BSk |
Website | www |
Hama (
The city is renowned for its seventeen norias used for watering the gardens, which are locally claimed to date back to 1100 BC. Though historically used for purpose of irrigation, the norias exist today as an almost entirely aesthetic traditional show.
History
The ancient settlement of Hamath was occupied from the early Neolithic to the Iron Age.
Neolithic
The stratigraphy is very generalized, which makes detailed comparison to other sites difficult. Level M (6 m or 20 ft thick) contained both white ware (lime-plaster) and true pottery. It may be contemporary with Ras Shamra V (6000–5000 BC).
Chalcolithic
Remains from the Chalcolithic have been uncovered by Danish archaeologists on the mount on which the former citadel once stood.[5] The excavation took place between 1931 and 1938 under the direction of Harald Ingholt. The overlying level L dates to the Chalcolithic Halaf culture.
Bronze Age
Mitanni period
Although the town appears to be unmentioned in
Hittite period
By around 1350 BC, Mitanni was overthrown by the Hittites, who controlled all of northern Syria.
In the south, the Hittites were in conflict with the Egyptians. Hamath became an important urban center. The conflict culminated in the famous Battle of Kadesh against Ancient Egypt under Ramesses II near Homs in 1285 BC.
In early 19th century, Johann Ludwig Burckhardt was the first to discover Hittite or Luwian hieroglyphic script at Hama.[7]
Iron Age
The Fall of the Hittite Empire saw the Neo-Hittite/
Assyrian inscriptions
When the Assyrian king
An Aramaic inscription of
In 743 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III took a number of towns in the territory of Hamath, distributed the territories among his generals, and forcibly removed 1,223 selected inhabitants to the valley of the Upper Tigris; he exacted tribute from Hamath's king, Eni-Ilu (Eniel).
In 738 BC, Hamath is listed among the cities again conquered by Assyrian troops. Over 30,000 natives were deported to Ullaba (located in Urartu)[10] and replaced with captives from the Zagros Mountains.[6]
Destruction under Sargon II
After the fall of the
.Styling himself the "Destroyer of Hamath," Sargon II razed the city c. 720 BC,[11] recolonized it with 6300 Assyrians and removed its king to be flayed alive in Assyria.[6] He also carried off to Nimrud the ivory-adorned furnishings of its kings.[12]
Displaced persons from Hamath subsequently comprised an important part of the multi-ethnic Aramaean community at Elephantine and Syene (now Aswan) in Egypt starting in 700 BCE, where alongside similarly displaced Jews they produced a large corpus of materials in Imperial Aramaic known as the Elephantine papyri and ostraca.[13]
Hamath in the Bible
The few
Assyria's defeat of Hamath made a profound impression on Isaiah (Isaiah 10:9). The prophet Amos also named the town "Hamath the Great" (Amos 6:2).
Persian, Hellenistic and Roman history
In 539 BC, Cyrus the Great, King of Achaemenid Empire, took Syria as part of his empire, to be known as Eber-Nari. In July 522 BC, Cambyses II died at a location called Agbatana, which is most likely the modern city of Hama.[15]
In the second half of the 4th century BC the modern region of Syria came under the influence of Greco-Roman culture, following long lasting semitic and Persian cultures.
The
In AD 330, the capital of the Roman Empire was moved to
Two main personalities from Hama were documented during Greek-Roman times. The first is Eustathius of Epiphaneia (
Muslim rule
During the
It came under the control of the
Hama grew prosperous during the Ayyubid period, as well as the Mamluk period. It gradually expanded to both banks of the Orontes River, with the suburb on the right bank being connected to the town proper by a newly built bridge. The town on the left bank was divided into upper and lower parts, each of which was surrounded by a wall. The city was filled with palaces, markets, mosques, madrasas, and a hospital, and over thirty different sized norias (water-wheels). In addition, there stood a massive citadel in Hama.[22] Moreover, a special aqueduct brought drinking water to Hama from the neighboring town of Salamiyah.[22]
Ottoman rule
The prosperous period of Mamluk rule came to an end in 1516, when the
Then in the 18th century, it became a part of the holdings of the governor of Damascus.
Modern history
Ottoman rule ended in 1918, after their defeat in
During the French Mandate, the district of Hama contained within its bounds the municipality of Hama and 114 villages. By an estimate in 1930, only four of these villages were owned outright by local cultivators, while sharing ownership of two villages with a notable family. Thus, the hinterland was owned by landowning elites.[34] Starting in the late 1940s, significant class conflict erupted as agricultural workers sought reform in Hama.
Syria gained full independence from France in 1946.
The political insurgency by Sunni Islamic groups, particularly the Muslim Brotherhood, occurred in the city, which was reputed as a stronghold of conservative Sunni Islam. As early as the spring of 1964, Hama became the epicentre of an uprising by conservative forces, encouraged by speeches from mosque preachers, denouncing the policies of the Ba'ath. The Syrian government sent tanks and troops into the quarters of Hama's old city to put down the insurrection.[34]
In the early 1980s, Hama had emerged as a major source of opposition to the Ba'ath government during the Sunni armed
In 2018, archaeologists revealed a Byzantine mosaic painting of a church that dates back to the fifth century AD. The painting, which was decorated with geometric shapes and inscriptions in Latin, was unearthed in the Tell Salhab area in Khareb village.[39][40]
Climate
Its climate is classified as
Climate data for Hama (1961–1990, extremes 1956–2004) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 20.0 (68.0) |
23.1 (73.6) |
28.0 (82.4) |
36.2 (97.2) |
41.0 (105.8) |
42.0 (107.6) |
45.2 (113.4) |
45.0 (113.0) |
42.2 (108.0) |
37.6 (99.7) |
31.0 (87.8) |
25.2 (77.4) |
45.2 (113.4) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 11.4 (52.5) |
13.8 (56.8) |
17.9 (64.2) |
23.1 (73.6) |
29.3 (84.7) |
33.8 (92.8) |
36.2 (97.2) |
36.2 (97.2) |
33.8 (92.8) |
27.6 (81.7) |
19.7 (67.5) |
13.1 (55.6) |
24.7 (76.5) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 6.6 (43.9) |
8.3 (46.9) |
11.6 (52.9) |
15.9 (60.6) |
21.1 (70.0) |
25.8 (78.4) |
28.2 (82.8) |
27.9 (82.2) |
25.3 (77.5) |
19.3 (66.7) |
12.7 (54.9) |
7.9 (46.2) |
17.5 (63.5) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.9 (37.2) |
3.3 (37.9) |
5.4 (41.7) |
8.8 (47.8) |
12.9 (55.2) |
17.4 (63.3) |
20.2 (68.4) |
20.1 (68.2) |
17.1 (62.8) |
12.4 (54.3) |
6.6 (43.9) |
3.7 (38.7) |
10.9 (51.6) |
Record low °C (°F) | −8.3 (17.1) |
−7.3 (18.9) |
−3.0 (26.6) |
−0.5 (31.1) |
5.9 (42.6) |
10.6 (51.1) |
14.7 (58.5) |
14.0 (57.2) |
9.5 (49.1) |
2.2 (36.0) |
−3.7 (25.3) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−8.3 (17.1) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 72.5 (2.85) |
54.3 (2.14) |
49.3 (1.94) |
32.3 (1.27) |
10.3 (0.41) |
3.8 (0.15) |
0.4 (0.02) |
0.1 (0.00) |
1.8 (0.07) |
21.4 (0.84) |
40.0 (1.57) |
66.5 (2.62) |
352.7 (13.89) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 9.9 | 8.1 | 7.4 | 4.5 | 1.8 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 2.8 | 5.1 | 9.0 | 49.2 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
81 | 75 | 69 | 61 | 49 | 40 | 39 | 42 | 43 | 51 | 69 | 83 | 58 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 127.1 | 151.2 | 217.0 | 249.0 | 325.5 | 366.0 | 387.5 | 356.5 | 312.0 | 257.3 | 192.0 | 130.2 | 3,071.3 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 4.1 | 5.4 | 7.0 | 8.3 | 10.5 | 12.2 | 12.5 | 11.5 | 10.4 | 8.3 | 6.4 | 4.2 | 8.4 |
Source 1: NOAA[42] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes 1956–2004, and humidity 1973–1993)[43] |
Demographics
According to Josiah C. Russel, during the 12th century, Hama had a population of 6,750.[44] James Reilly accounts the historical population as: 1812– 30,000 (Burckhardt) 1830– 20,000 (Robinson) 1839– 30–44,000 (Bowring) 1850– 30,000 (Porter) 1862– 10–12,000 (Guys) 1880– 27,656 (Parliamentary Papers) 1901– 60,000 (Parliamentary Papers) 1902–1907 80,000 (Trade Reports) 1906– 40,000 (al-Sabuni) 1909– 60,000 (Trade Reports)[45] In 1932, while Hama was under the French Mandate, there were approximately 50,000 residents. In the 1960 census, there were 110,000 inhabitants. The population continued to rise, reaching 180,000 in 1978 and 273,000 in 1994.[46] The infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births in the Hama Governorate was 99.4.[47] A 2005 estimate had Hama's population at around 325,000 inhabitants.[48]
Most of the residents are
The city also contains a
Ecclesiastical status
The Greek Orthodox Church has a prelacy in Hama under the
Titular bishopric of the Roman Church
- Vartan Hunanian (28 Jan 1675 - 24 Oct 1681) [53]
- bishop of Vienna)
- Giovanni Domenico Xiberras, (1 Oct 1727 - 5 Oct 1751)
- Giovanni Battista Albrici Pellegrini (5 Oct 1751 - 21 Jul 1760, Bishop of Como)
- Tommaso Vespoli (22 Nov 1762 - 1768 )
- Johann Nepomuk Augustin von Hornstein zu Hohenstoffen (16 May 1768 - 16 Dec 1805)
- Francis Alphonsus Bourne(23 Mar 1896 - 1 May 1897)
- Pierre Feghali (23 Feb 1919 - 20 Jul 1944)
- Pietro Sfair (11 Mar 1953 - 11 Mar 1960)
- Volodymyr Malanczuk, (22 Jul 1960 - 29 Sep 1990)
Neighborhoods
Main sights
Hama's most famous attractions are the 17
Other sights include:
- the museum, housed in an 18th-century Ottoman governor residence (Azem Palace). Remains in the exhibition include a precious Roman mosaic from the nearby village of Maryamin (4th century AD)
- Nur ad-Din after the earthquake of 1157. Notable is the minaret.
- The small Mamluk al-Izzi mosque (15th century)
- The mosque and Mausoleum of Ayyubidhistorian who was also governor of the city.
- al-Hasanain mosque, also rebuilt by Nur ad-Din after the aforementioned earthquake.
- The Great Mosque. Destroyed in the 1982 bombardment, it has been rebuilt in its original forms. It has elements dating from the ancient and Christian structures existing in the same location. It has two minarets, and is preceded by a portico with an elevated treasury.
Notable people
- Adnan al-Bakkour, former Attorney General
See also
- Outline of Syria
- Cities of the ancient Near East
- Hama massacre
- Short chronology timeline
References
- ^ "2023 official census". cbss. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
- ^ "President al-Assad issues decrees on appointing new governors for eight Syrian provinces". Syrian Arab News Agency. 20 July 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
- ^ Updated: Your Cheat Sheet to the Syrian Conflict. PBS.
- ^ a b "Hamah (Syria)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 June 2013.
- ^ a b Ring, 1996, p.315.
- ^ a b c d e f Hawkins, J.D. "Hamath." Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie, Vol. 4. Walter de Gruyter, 1975.
- ^ The Decipherment of Hittite Archived 31 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine James Norman (Schmidt), Ancestral Voices: Decoding Ancient Languages, Four Winds Press, New York, 1975.
- ^ "Hamath". Jewish Encyclopedia. Jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Hamath's history from the inscriptions was encapsulated by George L. Robinson, "The Entrance of Hamath" The Biblical World 32.1 (July 1908:7–18), in discussing the topography evoked by the Biblical phrase "the entrance of Hamath".
- ^ Grainger 2016.
- ^ "Hamath Wrecked to Terrify Small Opponents of Assyria" The Science News-Letter. 39:13 (29 March 1941:205–206.)
- ^ The ivories were found there by Layard. One of the ivory panels found at "Fort Shalmaneser" is inscribed "Hamath." (R. D. Barnett, "Hamath and Nimrud: Shell Fragments from Hamath and the Provenance of the Nimrud Ivories." Iraq. 25:1. [Spring 1963:81–85.])
- OCLC 1117508771.
In the fifth century BCE, the Persian army in southern Egypt employed Arameans from Syria, Arameans from Babylonia, and Jews. The latter identified themselves as Arameans too. Their language was Aramaic, and their literary and religious culture bore an Aramean slant. [...] One of the two groups that constituted the Aramean colony of Syene had its roots in Hamath. This is the Bethel group.
- NIVtranslation, which refers to the Dead Sea
- ^ Dandamayev 1990, pp. 726–729.
- ^ a b "ToposText". topostext.org.
- ^ a b c d Ring, 1996, p.317.
- ^ "Hamian Archers: Roman auxiliaries from Syria in Britain. 2nd Century A.D." (PDF). portalstothepast.co.uk.
- ^ "The Hamians". romanarmy.net.
- ^ Bruce 1867, pp. 243–244.
- ^ "SOL Search". www.cs.uky.edu.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Dumper, Stanley, and Abu-Lughod, 2007, p.163.
- ^ le Strange, 1890, p.39.
- ^ le Strange, 1890, p.357.
- ^ Whitaker 2008, p. 163.
- ^ Robinson 1908:9.
- ^ Nur al-Din Mosque Archived 3 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Archnet Digital Library.
- ^ le Strange, 1890, p.359.
- ^ a b le Strange, 1890, p.360.
- ^ le Strange, 1890, p.xxiii.
- ^ a b c Ring, 1996, p.318.
- ISBN 978-90-04-37902-2. p.25.
- ^ Reilly, 2002, p.72.
- ^ a b c Dumper, Stanley, and Abu-Lughod, 2007, p. 164.
- ^ Larbi Sadiki. "In Syria, the government is the real rebel – Opinion". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "Survivors of Syria's Hama massacres by Assad forces watch, and hope". English.alarabiya.net. 9 July 2011. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-374-70699-9.
- ^ "Mosaic painting dating back to fifth century AD discovered in Hama countryside". Syrian Arab News Agency. 31 October 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
- ^ "Early Byzantine mosaic floor discovered in Syria's Hama". The Archaeology News Network. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
- . Retrieved 1 August 2013.
- ^ "Hama Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
- ^ "Klimatafel von Hama / Syrien" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
- ^ Shatzmiller, 1994, p.59.
- ^ James Reilly, A Small Town in Syria, Ottoman Hama in the 18th and 19th Centuries, p73. Peter Lang Publishing (2002)
- ^ Wincler, 1998, p.72.
- ^ Wincler, 1998, p.44.
- ^ a b Dumper, Stanley, and Abu-Lughod, 2007, p.162.
- ^ a b Schaff and Herzog, 1911, p.232.
- ^ Oriens Christianus, II, pp.915–918.
- ^ Gelzer, Heinrich, Patrum Nicaenorum Nomina. p.lxi.
- ^ Missiones Catholicae. pp.781–804.
- ^ http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/d2e34.html Epiphania in Syria (Titular See). Catholicheirachy.org
Bibliography
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Hamatha". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hamatha
- Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1990). "Cambyses II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 726–729.
- Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2007), Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 9781576079195.
- Bruce, John Collingwood (1867), The Roman Wall: a historical, topographical, and descriptive account of the barrier of the lower isthmus, extending from the Tyne to the Solway, etc. With plates and maps, Longmans & Company.
- Grainger, John D. (2016), Syria: An Outline History, Pen and Sword, ISBN 9781473860834.
- Herzog, Johann Jakob; Schaff, Phillip (1911), The new Schaff-Herzog encyclopedia of religious knowledge: embracing Biblical, historical, doctrinal, and practical theology and Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical biography from the earliest times to the present day, Funk and Wagnalls Company.
- Reilly, James (2002), A small town in Syria: Ottoman Hama in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, P. Lang, ISBN 9783906766904.
- Ring, Trudy; Berney, K.A.; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (1996), International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa, Routledge, ISBN 1-884964-03-6.
- Shatzmiller, Maya (1994), Labour in the medieval Islamic world, BRILL, ISBN 9789004098961.
- le Strange, Guy (1890), Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500, Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund.
- Winckler, Onn (1998), Demographic developments and population policies in Baʻathist Syria, ISBN 1-902210-16-6.
- J.L. Whitaker (2008), "Hamah", in Michael R.T. Dumper; Bruce E. Stanley (eds.), Cities of the Middle East and North Africa, Santa Barbara, USA: ABC-CLIO
Further reading
- P. J. Riis/V. Poulsen, Hama: fouilles et recherches 1931–1938 (Copenhagen 1957).
External links
- The Official City's Group on facebook (in Arabic) – (in English)
- e.sy Governmental online services
- Official site of Hama governorate Archived 12 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine (in Arabic)
- Hama city community on the net (in Arabic)
- Ancient Hama king list historyfiles.co.uk