Han dynasty

Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices of animals and food to deities, spirits, and ancestors at

In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted as the highest priest in the land who made sacrifices to Heaven, the main deities known as the Five Powers, and spirits of mountains and rivers known as shen.^[256] It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of yin and yang and the five phases.^{[257][258][259][260]} If the emperor did not behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could disrupt the fine balance of these cosmological cycles and cause calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, and swarms of locusts.^{[260][261][262]}

It was believed that immortality could be achieved if one reached the lands of the Queen Mother of the West or Mount Penglai.^[263][264] Han-era Daoists assembled into small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques, and the use of medical elixirs.^[265]

By the 2nd century AD, Daoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher Laozi (fl. 6th century BC) was a holy prophet who would offer salvation and good health if his devout followers would confess their sins, ban the worship of unclean gods who accepted meat sacrifices, and chant sections of the Daodejing.^[266]

Buddhism

Central government

In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a 600-bushel salary-rank or higher.^[271][272] Theoretically, there were no limits to his power.

However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (tingyi 廷議)—where ministers were convened to reach a majority consensus on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions.^[273][274] If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.^[275]

Below the emperor were his

The Chancellor, whose title had changed in 8 BC to Minister over the Masses, was chiefly responsible for drafting the government budget. The Chancellor's other duties included managing provincial registers for land and population, leading court conferences, acting as judge in lawsuits, and recommending nominees for high office. He could appoint officials below the salary-rank of 600 bushels.^[278][279]

The Imperial Counselor's chief duty was to conduct disciplinary procedures for officials. He shared similar duties with the Chancellor, such as receiving annual provincial reports. However, when his title was changed to Minister of Works in 8 BC, his chief duty became the oversight of public works projects.^[280][281]

The Grand Commandant, whose title was changed to Grand Marshal in 119 BC before reverting to Grand Commandant in 51 AD, was the irregularly posted commander of the military and then regent during the Western Han period. In the Eastern Han era he was chiefly a civil official who shared many of the same censorial powers as the other two Councilors of State.^[282][283]

Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the Nine Ministers, who each headed a specialized ministry. The Minister of Ceremonies (Taichang 太常) was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers, and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars.^{[284][285][286]} The Minister of the Household (Guang lu xun 光祿勳) was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks, and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot.^[284][287]

The Minister of the Imperial Clan (Zongzheng 宗正) oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles.[296]^[297] The Minister of Finance (da sìnong 大司農) was the treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues and set standards for units of measurement.^[298][299] The Minister Steward (Shaofu 少府) served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care, valuables and equipment.^[298][300]

Local government

The heads of provinces, whose official title was changed from Inspector to Governor and vice versa several times during Han, were responsible for inspecting several commandery-level and kingdom-level administrations.[304]^[305] On the basis of their reports, the officials in these local administrations would be promoted, demoted, dismissed, or prosecuted by the imperial court.^[306]

A governor could take various actions without permission from the imperial court. The lower-ranked inspector had executive powers only during times of crisis, such as raising militias across the commanderies under his jurisdiction to suppress a rebellion.^[301]

A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and was headed by an administrator.^[301] He was the top civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defense, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers, and recommendations of nominees for office sent annually to the capital in a quota system first established by Emperor Wu.^{[307][308][309]} The head of a large county of about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the heads of smaller counties were called chiefs, and both could be referred to as magistrates.^[310][311] A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual corvée duties, repaired schools, and supervised public works.^[311]

Kingdoms and marquessates

Kingdoms—roughly the size of

However, in 145 BC, after several insurrections by the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to appoint officials whose salaries were higher than 400 bushels.^[313] The Imperial Counselors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government.^[313]

With these reforms, kings were reduced to being nominal heads of their fiefs, gaining a personal income from only a portion of the taxes collected in their kingdom.^[17] Similarly, the officials in the administrative staff of a full marquess's fief were appointed by the central government. A marquess's Chancellor was ranked as the equivalent of a county Prefect. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his fief as personal income.^[310][315]

Until the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, the Han emperors had great difficulties controlling their vassal kings, who often switched allegiances to the Xiongnu whenever they felt threatened by imperial centralization of power. The seven years of Gaozu's reign featured defections by three vassal kings and one marquess, who then aligned themselves with the Xiongnu. Even imperial princes controlling fiefdoms would sometimes invite a Xiongnu invasion in response to the Emperor's threats. The Han moved to secure a treaty with the Xiongnu, aiming to clearly divide authority between them. The Han and Xiongnu now held one another out as the "two masters" with sole dominion over their respective peoples; they cemented this agreement with a marriage alliance (heqin), before eliminating the rebellious vassal kings in 154 BC. This prompted some of the Xiongnu vassals to swap allegiances to the Han, starting in 147. Han court officials were initially hostile to the idea of disrupting the status quo by expanding into Xiongnu territory in the steppe. The surrendered Xiongnu were integrated into a parallel military and political structures loyal to the Han emperor, a step toward a potential Han challenge to the superiority of Xiongnu cavalry in steppe warfare. This also brought the Han into contact with the interstate trade networks through the Tarim Basin in the far northwest, allowing for the Han's expansion from a regional state to a universalist, cosmopolitan empire achieved in part through further marriage alliances with the Wusun, another steppe power.^[316]

Military

A Chinese crossbow mechanism with a buttplate from either the late Warring States period or the early Han dynasty; made of bronze and inlaid with silver

At the beginning of the Han dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for conscription into the military. The minimum age was reduced to twenty following the reign of Emperor Zhao (r. 87–74).^[317] Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was spent in one of three branches of the armed forces: infantry, cavalry, or navy. Prior to the abolition of much of the conscription system after 30 AD, soldiers could be called up for future service following the completion of their terms. They had to continue training regularly to maintain their skills, and were subject to annual inspections of their military readiness.^[318][319] The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court, or in the capital under the Minister of the Guards. A small professional army was stationed near the capital.^[318][319]

During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favored the recruitment of a volunteer army.^[320] The volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (Nanjun 南軍), while the standing army stationed in and near the capital was the Northern Army (Beijun 北軍).^[321] Led by Colonels (Xiaowei 校尉), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers.^[322][323] When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops.^[324]

During times of war, the volunteer army was increased, and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a general (jiangjun 將軍) led a division, which was divided into regiments led by a colonel or major (sima 司馬). Regiments were divided into companies and led by captains. Platoons were the smallest units.^[322][325]

Economy

Currency

A wuzhu (五銖) coin issued during the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), 25.5 mm in diameter

The Han dynasty inherited the

In 144 BC Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin.[327] Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the ban liangs entirely in favor of the wuzhu coin, weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz).^[328] The wuzhu became China's standard coin until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu.^{[329][330][331]}

Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage in 113 BC. This central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks, this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during the Eastern Han.^[331][332]

Taxation and property

Aside from the landowner's

poll tax and property taxes were paid in coin cash.^[333] The annual poll tax rate for adult men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of 240 coins.^[334] The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118 BC to 5 AD, an average of 220,000,000 coins a year.^[335]

The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the very social class the government attempted to suppress through heavy commercial and property taxes.[336] Emperor Wu even enacted laws which banned registered merchants from owning land, yet powerful merchants were able to avoid registration and own large tracts of land.^[337][338]

The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords.^{[339][340][341]} The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans, and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in agricultural colonies until they could recover from their debts.^[62][342]

In 168 BC, the land tax rate was reduced from one-fifteenth of a farming household's crop yield to one-thirtieth,^[343][344] and later to one-hundredth of a crop yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.^[344]

The labor tax took the form of conscripted labor for one month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fifteen to fifty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labor became more popular.^[318][345]

Private manufacture and government monopolies

iron dagger

In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce numbering over 1000. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a significant portion of its land tax revenue.^[346][347] To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the state monopolies.^{[348][349][350]} By Eastern Han times, the central government monopolies were repealed in favor of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.^[348][351]

Liquor was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this was repealed in 81 BC and a property tax rate of two coins for every 0.2 litres (0.053 US gal) was levied for those who traded it privately.^[352][353] By 110 BC, Emperor Wu also interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government stores of grain at a lower price than that demanded by merchants.^[62] Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68 AD, central-government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.^[354]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology of the Han dynasty

The Han dynasty was a unique period in the development of premodern Chinese science and technology, comparable to the level of

scientific and technological growth during the Song dynasty (960–1279).^[356][357]

Writing materials

In the 1st millennium BC, typical ancient Chinese writing materials were

bamboo slips or wooden boards. By the beginning of the Han dynasty, the chief writing materials were clay tablets, silk cloth, hemp paper,^[358][359] and rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips sewn together with hempen string; these were passed through drilled holes and secured with clay stamps.^{[360][361][362]}

The oldest known Chinese piece of hempen paper dates to the 2nd century BC.[363]^[358] The standard papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun (AD 50–121) in 105.^[364][365] The oldest known surviving piece of paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a Han watchtower that had been abandoned in AD 110, in Inner Mongolia.^[366]

Metallurgy and agriculture

Left image: A Han-dynasty era mold for making bronze gear wheels (Shanghai Museum)
Right image: A pair of Eastern-Han iron scissors

Evidence suggests that blast furnaces, that convert raw iron ore into pig iron, which can be remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron by means of a cold blast and hot blast, were operational in China by the late Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC).^[367][368] The bloomery was nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced wrought iron by injecting excess oxygen into a furnace and causing decarburization.^[369] Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and steel using a fining process.^[370][371]

The Han dynasty Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools, and domestic wares.^[372][373] A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron seed drill, invented by the 2nd century BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of sowing seeds by hand.^{[374][375][376]} The heavy moldboard iron plow, also invented during the Han dynasty, required only one man to control it with two oxen to pull it. It had three plowshares, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly 45,730 m² (11.3 acres) of land in a single day.^[377][378]

To protect crops from wind and drought, the grain intendant Zhao Guo (趙過) created the alternating fields system (daitianfa 代田法) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of ridges and furrows between growing seasons.^[379] Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it.^[379] Han farmers also used the pit field system (aotian 凹田) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require plows or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain.^[380][381] In the southern and small parts of central Han-era China, paddy fields were chiefly used to grow rice, while farmers along the Huai River used transplantation methods of rice production.^[382]

Structural and geotechnical engineering

Further information: Han dynasty tomb architecture and Western Han dynasty imperial tombs

Left image: A pottery model of a palace from a Han-dynasty tomb; the entrances to the emperor's palaces were strictly guarded by the Minister of the Guards; if it was found that a commoner, official, or noble entered without explicit permission via a tally system, the intruder was subject to execution.^[383]
Right image: A painted ceramic architectural model—found in an Eastern-Han tomb at Jiazuo, Henan province—depicting a fortified manor with towers, a courtyard, verandas, tiled rooftops, dougong support brackets, and a covered bridge extending from the third floor of the main tower to the smaller watchtower.^[384]

Left image: A ceramic architectural model of a grain storage tower with five layers of tiled rooftops and columns supporting the roofs of balconies on the first two floors, dated from the mid Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) to early Eastern Han (25–220 AD) era.
Right image: A Han-dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) era pottery model of a granary tower with windows and balcony placed several stories above the first-floor courtyard; Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) described the large imperial park in the suburbs of Chang'an as having tall towers where archers would shoot stringed arrows from the top in order to entertain the Western Han emperors.^[385]

Timber was the chief building material during the Han dynasty; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls, and single-story houses.^[386] Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of scattered ceramic roof tiles.^[386][387] The oldest surviving wooden halls in China date to the Tang dynasty (618–907).^[388] Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp points out the scarcity of Han-era archeological remains, and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and artistic sources are used by historians for clues about lost Han architecture.^[389]

Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han-dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and

balustrades.^[396][395]

The courtyard house is the most common type of home portrayed in Han artwork.^[386] Ceramic architectural models of buildings, like houses and towers, were found in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead in the afterlife. These provide valuable clues about lost wooden architecture. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exact matches to Han roof tiles found at archeological sites.^[397]

Over ten Han-era underground tombs have been found, many of them featuring archways, vaulted chambers, and domed roofs.^[398] Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits.^[399] The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown.^[399]

From Han literary sources, it is known that wooden-trestle beam bridges, arch bridges, simple suspension bridges, and floating pontoon bridges existed in Han China.^[400] However, there are only two known references to arch bridges in Han literature.^[401] There is only one relief sculpture dated to the Han period that depicts an arch bridge; it is located in Sichuan province.^[402]

bamboo pipelines.^{[403][405][406]} These boreholes perhaps reached a depth of 600 m (2000 ft).^[407]

• 
  A pair of stone-carved que (闕) located at the temple of Mount Song in Dengfeng. (Eastern Han dynasty.)
• 
  A pair of Han period stone-carved que (闕) located at Babaoshan, Beijing.
• 
  A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (闕), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an. (Eastern Han dynasty.)^[395]
• 
  An Eastern-Han vaulted tomb chamber at Luoyang made of small bricks

Mechanical and hydraulic engineering

Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes-disinterested Confucian scholars who generally considered scientific and engineering endeavors to be far beneath them.^[408] Professional artisan-engineers (jiang 匠) did not leave behind detailed records of their work.^[409][d] Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described.^[410] Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information.

For example, in 15 BC the philosopher and poet Yang Xiong described the invention of the belt drive for a quilling machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing.^[411] The inventions of mechanical engineer and craftsman Ding Huan are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital.^[412] Around AD 180, Ding created a manually operated rotary fan used for air conditioning within palace buildings.^[413] Ding also used gimbals as pivotal supports for one of his incense burners and invented the world's first known zoetrope lamp.^[414]

Modern archeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the

fans of winnowing machines that separated grain from chaff.^[415] The odometer cart, invented during the Han period, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance traveled.^[416] This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century, yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century.^[417]

Modern archeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal

calipers used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han literary sources.^[418]

The

waterwheel appeared in Chinese records during the Han. As mentioned by Huan Tan c. 20 AD , they were used to turn gears that lifted iron trip hammers, and were used in pounding, threshing, and polishing grain.^[419] However, there is no sufficient evidence for the watermill in China until about the 5th century.^[420] The Nanyang Commandery Administrator, mechanical engineer, and metallurgist Du Shi (d. 38 AD) created a waterwheel-powered reciprocator that worked the bellows for the smelting of iron.^[421][422] Waterwheels were also used to power chain pumps that lifted water to raised irrigation ditches. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century Balanced Discourse.^[423]

The

timekeeping in the pressure head of the inflow water clock, Zhang was the first in China to install an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel.^[425][429]

Zhang also invented a device he termed an "earthquake weathervane" (houfeng didong yi 候風地動儀), which the British sinologist and historian

seismographs".^[430] This device was able to detect the exact cardinal or ordinal direction of earthquakes from hundreds of kilometers away.^{[425][431][427]} It employed an inverted pendulum that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth.^[432] The account of this device in the Book of the Later Han describes how, on one occasion, one of the metal balls was triggered without any of the observers feeling a disturbance. Several days later, a messenger arrived bearing news that an earthquake had struck in Longxi Commandery (modern Gansu), the direction the device had indicated, which forced the officials at court to admit the efficacy of Zhang's device.^[433]

Mathematics

Further information: Chinese mathematics § Han mathematics

Three Han mathematical treatises still exist. These are the

roots of equations.^[444]

One of the Han's greatest mathematical advancements was the world's first use of negative numbers. Negative numbers first appeared in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art as black counting rods, where positive numbers were represented by red counting rods.^[435] Negative numbers were also used by the Greek mathematician Diophantus around AD 275, and in the 7th-century Bakhshali manuscript of Gandhara, South Asia,^[445] but were not widely accepted in Europe until the 16th century.^[435]

The Han applied mathematics to various diverse disciplines. In

musical scale of 60 tones, calculating the difference at ¹⁷⁷¹⁴⁷⁄₁₇₆₇₇₆ (the same value of 53 equal temperament discovered by the German mathematician Nicholas Mercator [1620–1687], i.e. 3⁵³/2⁸⁴).^[446][447]

Astronomy

Further information: Chinese astronomy

Mathematics were essential in drafting the astronomical calendar, a lunisolar calendar that used the Sun and Moon as time-markers throughout the year.^[448][449] During the spring and autumn periods of the 5th century BC, the Chinese established the Sifen calendar (古四分歷), which measured the tropical year at 365.25 days. This was replaced in 104 BC with the Taichu calendar (太初曆) that measured the tropical year at 365+385⁄1539 (~ 365.25016) days and the lunar month at 29+43⁄81 days.^[450] However, Emperor Zhang later reinstated the Sifen calendar.^[451]

Han dynasty astronomers made star catalogues and detailed records of comets that appeared in the night sky, including recording the 12 BC appearance of the comet now known as Halley's Comet.^{[452][453][454][455]} They adopted a geocentric model of the universe, theorizing that it was shaped like a sphere surrounding the Earth in the center.^{[456][457][458]} They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that lunar eclipses occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth.^[459] Although others disagreed with his model, Wang Chong accurately described the water cycle of the evaporation of water into clouds.^[460]

Cartography, ships, and vehicles

Evidence found in Chinese literature, and archeological evidence, show that cartography existed in China before the Han.^[461][462] Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the Mawangdui Silk Texts in a 2nd-century-BC tomb.^[461][463] The general Ma Yuan created the world's first known raised-relief map from rice in the 1st century.^[464] This date could be revised if the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang is excavated and the account in the Records of the Grand Historian concerning a model map of the empire is proven to be true.^[465]

Although the use of the

grid reference for maps was not thoroughly described until the published work of Pei Xiu (AD 224–271), there is evidence that in the early 2nd century, cartographer Zhang Heng was the first to use scales and grids for maps.^{[425][461][466][467]}

Han dynasty Chinese sailed in a variety of ships different from those of previous eras, such as the

bow and stern, a flat-bottomed hull or carvel-shaped hull with no keel or sternpost, and solid transverse bulkheads in the place of structural ribs found in Western vessels.^[468][469] Moreover, Han ships were the first in the world to be steered using a rudder at the stern, in contrast to the simpler steering oar used for riverine transport, allowing them to sail on the high seas.^{[470][471][472][473][474][475]}

Although ox-carts and chariots were previously used in China, the wheelbarrow was first used in Han China in the 1st century BC.^[476][477] Han artwork of horse-drawn chariots shows that the Warring-States-Era heavy wooden yoke placed around a horse's chest was replaced by the softer breast strap.^[478] Later, during the Northern Wei (386–534), the fully developed horse collar was invented.^[478]

Medicine

Further information: Traditional Chinese medicine § Han dynasty

painting on silk depicting the practice of Daoyin; unearthed in 1973 in Hunan, from the 2nd-century BC Western Han site at Mawangdui

, Tomb Number 3.

Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the

organ of the body was associated with a particular phase. Illness was viewed as a sign that qi or "vital energy" channels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance.^{[479][480][481]}

For example, since the wood phase was believed to promote the fire phase, medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase could be used to heal an organ associated with the fire phase.

Shennong Ben Cao Jing medical text.^[486]

See also

• Battle of Jushi
• Campaign against Dong Zhuo
• Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires
• Han Emperors family tree
• Shuanggudui
• Ten Attendants

Notes

1. ^ See also Hinsch (2002), pp. 21–22
2. ^ See also Needham (1972), p. 112.
3. ^ See also Ebrey (1999), p. 76; see Needham (1972), Plate V, Fig. 15, for a photo of a Han-era fortress in Dunhuang, Gansu province that has rammed earth ramparts with defensive crenellations at the top.
4. ^ See also Barbieri-Low (2007), p. 36.

References

Citations

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8. ^ Bailey (1985), pp. 25–26.
9. ^ Loewe (1986), p. 116.
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11. ^ Loewe (1986), pp. 116–122.
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13. ^ Loewe (1986), p. 122.
14. ^ ^{a b} Loewe (1986), pp. 122–125.
15. ^ Loewe (1986), pp. 139–144.
16. ^ ^{a b} Bielenstein (1980), p. 106.
17. ^ ^{a b c d} Ch'ü (1972), p. 76.
18. ^ Bielenstein (1980), p. 105.
19. ^ Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 175–189, 196–198.
20. ^ Torday (1997), pp. 80–81.
21. ^ Yü (1986), pp. 387–388.
22. ^ ^{a b} Torday (1997), pp. 75–77.
23. ^ Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 190–192.
24. ^ Yü (1967), pp. 9–10.
25. ^ Morton & Lewis (2005), p. 52.
26. ^ Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 192–195.
27. ^ Qingbo (2023).
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35. ^ Torday (1997), pp. 91–92.
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Further reading

Library resources about
Han dynasty

---

• Online books
• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

• ——— (2006), The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE–220 CE, Hackett Publishing Company,
  ISBN 978-0-87220-819-3
  .
• Yap, Joseph P. (2019). The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. Amazon Digital Services LLC – KDP Print US.
  ISBN 978-1-7928-2915-4
  .

External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Han Dynasty.

The Wikibook Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World has a page on the topic of: the Han Dynasty

• "Han dynasty" by Emuseum – Minnesota State University, Mankato
• Han dynasty art with video commentary, Minneapolis Institute of Arts
• Early Imperial China: A Working Collection of Resources Archived 25 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
• "Han Culture," Hanyangling Museum Website
• The Han Synthesis, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Christopher Cullen, Carol Michaelson & Roel Sterckx (In Our Time, Oct. 14, 2004)

Preceded by Qin dynasty

Dynasties in Chinese history 206 BC – AD 220

Succeeded by Three Kingdoms