Exilarch
The exilarch was the leader of the Jewish community in Persian
The first historical documents referring to it date from the time when
The exilarch's authority came under considerable challenge in 825 CE during the reign of al-Ma'mun who issued a decree permitting a group of ten men from any religious community to organize separately, which allowed the Gaon of the Talmudic academies of Sura and Pumbedita to compete with the exilarch for power and influence, later contributing to the wider schism between Karaites and Rabbinic Jewry.
Title
The word exilarch is a
Development and organization
Although there is no mention about the office before the 2nd century, the
Such was the exilarchate as it appears in Talmudic literature, the chief source for its history during the first period, and which provides our only information regarding the rights and functions of the exilarchate. For the second or Arabic period, there is a very important and trustworthy description of the institution of the exilarchate (See the sections Installation ceremonies and Income and privileges); this description is also important for the first period, because many of the details may be regarded as having persisted from it.
In Baghdad the privilege of using seals was limited to the exilarch and
"at the head of them all [the Jews under the Baghdad caliphate] is Daniel the son of Hisdai, who is styled 'Our Lord the Head of the Captivity of all Israel.' ... he has been invested with authority over all the congregations of Israel at the hands of the Emir al Muminim, the Lord of Islam."
Holders of the office
Biblical exilarchs
The following are exilarchs mentioned in the Seder Olam Zutta, most are likely legendary figures and have parallels in the text of 1 Chronicles 3:
- Jeconiah or Jehoiachin, one of the last of the Davidic kings of Judah.
- Shealtiel, son of Jehoiachin (1 Chronicles 3:17)
- Pedaiah, son of Jehoiachin (1 Chronicles 3:17)
- Yehud Province. According to the Seder Olam Zutta, Zerubbabel was the son of Shealtiel.
- Meshullam, son of Zerubbabel (1 Chronicles 3:19)
- Hananiah, son of Zerubbabel (1 Chronicles 3:19)
- Berechiah, son of Zerubbabel (1 Chronicles 3:19–20)
- Hasadiah, son of Hananiah (1 Chronicles 3:21)
- Jesaiah, son of Hananiah (1 Chronicles 3:21)
- Obadiah, son of Hananiah (1 Chronicles 3:21)
- Shemaiah, son of Obadiah according to the Seder Olam Zutta
- Shecaniah, the son of Shemaiah, according to the Seder Olam Zutta and lived at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple.
- Hezekiah, son of Shecaniah according to the Seder Olam Zutta
- Akkub, son of Hezekiah according to the Seder Olam Zutta, perhaps the same as Ahijahlisted below
Rabbinical exilarchs under the Sassanids
Probably historical exilarchs listed in the Seder Olam Zutta or noted by Talmudic authorities:
- Ahijah, not mentioned in the Seder Olam Zutta, referred to in the Talmud[9][10][11]
- Hadrianic persecution(135 CE)
- Johanan, brother of Nahum, who had jurisdictional issues with the Sanhedrin's authority[12]
- Shaphat, son of Johanan
- Judah ha-Nasi. Died abt. 210 CE.[15]
- Nathan Ukban I, living in 226, sometimes confused with Nathan de-Zuzita, son of Shaphat
- Sura[16]
- Nathan Ukban II, son of Huna II
- Nehemiah reigning in 313, son of Huna II
- Huna III, son of Nehemiah, also known as Huna bar Nathan. Known to the Sassanid court.[19]
- Abba, also known as Abemar, son of Huna III
- Nathan, son of Abba
- Mar Kahana I, son of Abba
- Huna IV, son of Mar Kahana I, died 441.
- Pahda, a non-Davidic usurper
- Mar Zutra I, brother of Huna IV.
- Merimar, son of Mar Zutra I
- Kahana II, son of Merimar
- Huna V, son of Mar Zutra I; executed by King Peroz of Persia in 470.
- Kavadh I[21]
- Huna VI, son of Kahana II - not installed for some time because of persecution. Possibly identical to Huna V. Died in the plague 508.[22]
- Mar Ahunai – did not dare to appear in public for 30 years. Also referred to as Huna VII.
- Kafnai (or Hofnai), second half of the 6th century
- Bahram VI, according to Karaite sources.[23]
- Mar Zutra III, son of David, son of Hezekiah, son of Huna, who left Babylonia altogether.[24][25]
Rabbinical exilarchs under Arab rule
- Bostanai, son of Haninai – first of the exilarchs under Arab rule,[26][27] middle of the 7th century starting around 640 CE.[28][29]
- Hasdai I, son of Bostanai[30]
- Baradoi, son of Bostanai
- Haninai II, son of Baradoi
- Hasdai II, son of Baradoi
- Solomon I son of Ḥasdai I, died in 759 CE.[31]
- Isaac Iskawi I, son of Solomon
- Judah Zakkai I (or Judah Babawai), son of Isaac Iskawi I
- Natronai I, Son of Haninai II
- Moses, son of Isaac Iskawi I
- Isaac Iskawi II, son of Moses
- David I, son of Judah Zakkai I
- Natronai II, son of Judah Zakkai I
- Judah II, son of David I
- Hasdai III, son of Natronai II
- Zakkai I, son of David I
- Mar Ukban IV, deposed, reinstated 918, deposed again shortly after.
- in 1038, but was imprisoned and tortured to death in 1040.
- Josiah, son of Zakkai
- Judah III, son of David II
- Solomon II, son of Josiah
- Hezekiah I, son of Judah III
- Azariah, son of Solomon II
- David III, son of Hezekiah I
- Hezekiah II, son of David III
- David IV, son of Hezekiah II
- Hezekiah III, son of David IV
- David V, son of Hezekiah III
- Hasdai IV, son of David V, also called Solomon at times[32]
- Daniel I, son of Hasdai IV, whom Benjamin of Tudela makes note of in his journeys.[33]
- Zakkai II,
- Samuel I of Mosul,
- David VI, son of Samuel I
- Daniel II, son of Zakkai II
- Samuel II, son of David VI or Azariah
- Jesse, defended Moses ben Maimon's work against the slander of Solomon ben Samuel Petit.
- Sar Shalom, son of Pinhas
Karaite exilarchs
The following is a list of
- Anan ben David, son of David ben Judah (ca 715 – ca 795 or 811?), considered to be a major founder of the Karaite movement
- Saul ben Anan, son of Anan ben David, 8th century.
- Josiah, son of Saul ben Anan
- Jehoshaphat ben Josiah, son of Josiah ben Saul, holding office during the early 9th century
- Boaz ben Jehoshaphat, son of Jehoshaphat ben Josiah, mid-9th century.
- David ben Boaz, son of Boaz ben Jehoshaphat, 10th century.
- Solomon ben David, son of David ben Boaz, late 10th and early 11th centuries.
- Hezekiah ben Solomon, son of Solomon ben David, sometime in the 11th century.
- Hasdai ben Hezekiah, son of Hezekiah ben Solomon, sometimes in the 11th and 12th centuries.
- Seljuksinvasion.
History
Legendary origins
The
A commentary to the
First allusions in the Jerusalem Talmud
In the account referring to the attempt of a teacher of
Rabbi Meïr's attempt, however, seems to have led Judah I to fear that the Babylonian exilarch might come to Judea to claim the office from
Succession of exilarchs
According to the
The Mar Ukbans
According to
He was succeeded by his brother Huna Mar (
Persecutions under Peroz and Kobad
Huna was succeeded by his brother
Huna V fell a victim to the persecutions under King
After Mar Zutra's death the exilarchate of Babylon remained unoccupied for some time.[56] Mar Ahunai lived in the period succeeding Mar Zutra II, but for almost fifty years after the catastrophe he did not dare to appear in public, and it is not known whether even then (c. 550) he really acted as exilarch. At any rate the chain of succession of those who inherited the office was not broken. The names of Kafnai and his son Haninai, who were exilarchs in the second half of the 6th, have been preserved.
Haninai's posthumous son Bostanai was the first of the exilarchs under Arabic rule. Bostanai was the ancestor of the exilarchs who were in office from the time when the Persian empire was conquered by the Arabs, in 642, down to the 11th century. Through him, the splendor of the office was renewed and its political position made secure. His tomb in Pumbedita was a place of worship as late as the 12th century, according to Benjamin of Tudela.
Not much is known regarding Bostanai's successors down to the time of Saadia except their names; even the name of Bostanai's son is not known. The list of the exilarchs down to the end of the 9th century is given as follows in an old document:[57] "Bostanai, Hanina ben Adoi, Hasdai I, Solomon, Isaac Iskawi I, Judah Zakkai (Babawai), Moses, Isaac Iskawi II, David ben Judah, Hasdai II."
Hasdai I was probably Bostanai's grandson. The latter's son Solomon had a deciding voice in the appointments to the gaonate of Sura in the years 733 and 759 [Sherira]. Isaac Iskawi I died very soon after Solomon. In the dispute between David's sons Anan and Hananiah regarding the succession the latter was victor; Anan then proclaimed himself anti-exilarch, was imprisoned, and founded the etc. of the
Anan's brother Hananiah is not mentioned in this list.Judah Zakkai, who is called "Zakkai ben Ahunai" by Sherira, had as rival candidate Natronai ben Habibai, who, however, was defeated and sent West in banishment; this Natronai was a great scholar, and, according to tradition, while in Spain wrote the Talmud from memory. David ben Judah also had to contend with an anti-exilarch, Daniel by name. The fact that the decision in this dispute rested with the calif Al-Ma'mun (825) indicates a decline in the power of the exilarchate. David ben Judah, who carried off the victory, appointed Isaac ben Hiyya as Gaon at Pumbedita in 833. Preceding Hasdai II's name in the list that of his father Natronai must be inserted. Both are designated as exilarchs in a geonic responsum.[59]
Deposition of 'Ukba
'Ukba's nephew,
Judah left a son (whose name is not mentioned) twelve years of age, whom Saadia took into his house and educated. His generous treatment of the grandson of his former adversary was continued until Saadia's death in 942.
Diminished power of the Babylonian exilarchate
When
Later traces
The title of exilarch is found occasionally even after the Babylonian exilarchate had ceased. Abraham ibn Ezra speaks of the "Davidic house" at Baghdad (before 1140), calling its members the "heads of the Exile."[61] Benjamin of Tudela in 1170 mentions the Exilarch Hasdai, among whose pupils was the subsequent pseudo-Messiah David Alroy, and Hasdai's son, the Exilarch Daniel. Pethahiah of Regensburg also refers to the latter, but under the name of "Daniel ben Solomon"; hence it must be assumed that Hasdai was also called "Solomon". Yehuda Alharizi (after 1216) met at Mosul a descendant of the house of David, whom he calls "David, the head of the Exile."
A long time previously a descendant of the ancient house of exilarchs had attempted to revive in Fatimid Egypt the dignity of exilarch which had become extinct in Babylon. This was David ben Daniel; he came to Egypt at the age of twenty, in 1081, and was proclaimed exilarch by the learned Jewish authorities of that country, who wished to divert to Egypt the leadership formerly enjoyed by Babylon. A contemporary document, the Megillah of the gaon Abiathar from the land of Israel, gives an authentic account of this episode of the Egyptian Exilarchate, which ended with the downfall of David ben Daniel in 1094.[62]
Descendants of the house of exilarchs were living in various places long after the office became extinct. A descendant of Hezekiah, Hiyya al-Daudi, Gaon of Andalucia, died in 1154 in Castile according to Abraham ibn Daud. Several families, as late as the 14th century, traced their descent back to Josiah, the brother of David ben Zakkai who had been banished to Chorasan (see the genealogies in.[63] The descendants of the Karaite exilarchs have been referred to above.
Character of the exilarchate before Arab expansion
Relations with the Academies
In accordance with the character of Talmudic tradition, it is the relation of the exilarchs to the heads and members of the schools that is especially referred to in Talmudic literature. The
The authenticity of the names of the amoraim designated as the scholars "guiding" the several exilarchs, is, in the case of those passages in which the text is beyond dispute, supported by internal chronological evidence also. Some of the Babylonian amoraim were closely related to the house of the exilarchs, as, for example, Rabba ben Abuha, whom Gaon Sherira, claiming Davidian descent, named as his ancestor. Nahman ben Jacob (died 320) also became closely connected with the house of the exilarchs through his marriage with Rabba ben Abuha's daughter, the proud Yaltha; and he owed to this connection perhaps his office of chief judge of the Babylonian Jews. Huna, the head of the school of Sura, recognized Nahman ben Jacob's superior knowledge of the Law by saying that Nahman was very close to the "gate of the exilarch" ("baba di resh galuta"), where many cases were decided.[64]
The term "dayyanei di baba" ("judges of the gate"), which was applied in the post-Talmudic time to the members of the court of the exilarch, is derived from the phrase just quoted.[65] Two details of Nahman ben Jacob's life cast light on his position at the court of the exilarch: he received the two scholars Rav Chisda and Rabba b. Huna, who had come to pay their respects to the exilarch;[66] and when the exilarch was building a new house he asked Nahman to take charge of the placing of the mezuzah according to the Law.[67]
Behavior
The scholars who formed part of the retinue of the exilarch were called "scholars of the house of the exilarch" ("rabbanan di-be resh galuta"). A remark of
Etiquette of the Resh Galuta's court
The luxurious banquets at the court of the exilarch were well known. An old anecdote was repeated in the land of Israel concerning a splendid feast which the exilarch once gave to the tanna
The exilarch Nehemiah is said to have dressed entirely in silk.[80] The Talmud says almost nothing in regard to the personal relations of the exilarchs to the royal court. One passage relates merely that Huna ben Nathan appeared before Yazdegerd I, who with his own hands girded him with the belt which was the sign of the exilarch's office. There are also two allusions dating from an earlier time, one by Hiyya, a Babylonian living in the land of Israel,[81] and the other by Adda ben Ahaba, one of Rav's earlier pupils,[82] from which it seems that the exilarch occupied a foremost position among the high dignitaries of the state when he appeared at the court first of the Arsacids, then of the Sassanids.
An Arabic writer of the 9th century records the fact that the exilarch presented a gift of 4,000
Juridical functions
The most important function of the exilarch was the appointment of the judge. Both Rav and Samuel said[85] that the judge who did not wish to be held personally responsible in case of an error of judgment, would have to accept his appointment from the house of the exilarch. When Rav went from the land of Israel to Nehardea he was appointed overseer of the market by the exilarch.[86] The exilarch had jurisdiction in criminal cases also. Aha b. Jacob, a contemporary of Rav,[87] was commissioned by the exilarch to take charge of a murder case.[88] The story found in Bava Kamma 59a is an interesting example of the police jurisdiction exercised by the followers of the exilarch in the time of Samuel. From the same time dates a curious dispute regarding the etiquette of precedence among the scholars greeting the exilarch.[89] The exilarch had certain privileges regarding real property.[90] It is a specially noteworthy fact that in certain cases the exilarch judged according to the Persian law;[91] and it was the exilarch 'Ukba b. Nehemiah who communicated to the head of the school of Pumbedita, Rabbah ben Nahmai, three Persian statutes which Samuel recognized as binding.[92]
A synagogal prerogative of the exilarch was mentioned in the land of Israel as a curiosity:[93] The Torah roll was carried to the exilarch, while every one else had to go to the Torah to read from it. This prerogative is referred to also in the account of the installation of the exilarch in the Arabic period, and this gives color to the assumption that the ceremonies, as recounted in this document, were based in part on usages taken over from the Persian time. The account of the installation of the exilarch is supplemented by further details in regard to the exilarchate which are of great historical value; see the following section.
Character of the exilarchate in the Arabic era
Upon their conquest of
Installation ceremonies
The following is a translation of a portion of an account of the exilarchy in the Arabic period, written by Nathan ha-Babli in the early 10th century, and included in Abraham Zacuto's "Yuhasin" and in Neubauer's "Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles,":[97]
The members of the two academies [Sura and Pumbedita], led by the two heads [the geonim] as well as by the leaders of the community, assemble in the house of an especially prominent man before the Sabbath on which the installation of the exilarch is to take place. The first homage is paid on Thursday in the synagogue, the event being announced by trumpets, and every one sends presents to the exilarch according to his means. The leaders of the community and the wealthy send handsome garments, jewelry, and gold and silver vessels. On Thursday and Friday the exilarch gives great banquets. On the morning of the Sabbath the nobles of the community call for him and accompany him to the synagogue. Here a wooden platform covered entirely with costly cloth has been erected, under which a picked choir of sweet-voiced youths well versed in the liturgy has been placed. This choir responds to the leader in prayer, who begins the service with 'Baruk she-amar.' After the morning prayer the exilarch, who until now has been standing in a covered place, appears; the whole congregation rises and remains standing until he has taken his place on the platform, and the two geonim, the one from Sura preceding, have taken seats to his right and left, each making an obeisance.
A costly canopy has been erected over the seat of the exilarch. Then the leader in prayer steps in front of the platform and, in a low voice audible only to those close by, and accompanied by the 'Amen' of the choir, addresses the exilarch with a benediction, prepared long beforehand. Then the exilarch delivers a sermon on the text of the week or commissions the gaon of Sura to do so. After the discourse the leader in prayer recites the kaddish, and when he reaches the words 'during your life and in your days,' he adds the words 'and during the life of our prince, the exilarch.' After the kaddish he blesses the exilarch, the two heads of the schools, and the several provinces that contribute to the support of the academies, as well as the individuals who have been of especial service in this direction. Then the Torah is read. When the 'Kohen' and 'Levi' have finished reading, the leader in prayer carries the Torah roll to the exilarch, the whole congregation rising; the exilarch takes the roll in his hands and reads from it while standing. The two heads of the schools also rise, and the gaon of Sura recites the targum to the passage read by the exilarch. When the reading of the Torah is completed, a blessing is pronounced upon the exilarch. After the 'Musaf' prayer the exilarch leaves the synagogue, and all, singing, accompany him to his house. After that the exilarch rarely goes beyond the gate of his house, where services for the community are held on the Sabbaths and feastdays. When it becomes necessary for him to leave his house, he does so only in a carriage of state, accompanied by a large retinue. If the exilarch desires to pay his respects to the king, he first asks permission to do so. As he enters the palace the king's servants hasten to meet him, among whom he liberally distributes gold coin, for which provision has been made beforehand. When led before the king his seat is assigned to him. The king then asks what he desires. He begins with carefully prepared words of praise and blessing, reminds the king of the customs of his fathers, gains the favor of the king with appropriate words, and receives written consent to his demands; thereupon, rejoiced, he takes leave of the king."
Income and privileges
In regard to Nathan ha-Babli's additional account as to the income and the functions of the exilarch (which refers, however, only to the time of the narrator), it may be noted that he received taxes, amounting altogether to 700 gold
Another Muslim author reports a conversation that took place in the 8th century between a follower of Islam and the exilarch, in which the latter boasted; "Seventy generations have passed between me and King David, yet the Jews still recognize the prerogatives of my royal descent, and regard it as their duty to protect me; but you have slain the grandson
To this day, the exilarchs are still mentioned in the Sabbath services of the
See also
Footnotes
Constructs such as named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (June 2022) ) |
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Exilarch". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
- JSTOR 23559936.
- ^ Max A Margolis and Alexander Marx, A History of the Jewish People (1927), p. 235.
- ^ "The Real Messiah A Jewish Response to Missionaries" (PDF). Archived from the original on May 29, 2008. Retrieved 2012-04-17.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - Jewish Encyclopedia.
- Gale A337814851.
- ^ "سازمان فرهنگ و ارتباطات اسلامي - يهوديان". Archived from the original on 2011-10-05. Retrieved 2022-11-02.
- ^ Townley, James. Illustrations of biblical literature, exhibiting the history and fate of the sacred writings, from the earliest period to the present century; including biographical notices of translators and other eminent biblical scholars.
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - ^ "Medieval Jewish seals from Europe". Wayne State University Libraries. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
- ISBN 978-90-04-36058-7.[page needed]
- ^ "Ahijah, 1st Exilarch | the House of David". Archived from the original on 2021-07-11. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
- ^ "Ahijah - the 1901 Jewish Encyclopedia".
- JSTOR 3622402.
- ^ "Huna I, 5th Exilarch | the House of David". Archived from the original on 2021-07-19. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
- ^ Horayoth 11b
- JSTOR 1452602.
- Jewish Encyclopedia.
- ^ Recension A. Neubauer, "M. J. C." ii. 71.
- ^ Shabbat 56b
- Jewish Encyclopedia.
- ISBN 9783161506062. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
- JSTOR 24174694.
- ISBN 9783161506062. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
- ^ Jacob Neusner (1975). A history of the Jews in Babylonia v. later Sasanian times. printed in the Netherlands. p. 126. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
- S2CID 162847843.
- JSTOR 24174690.
- JSTOR 1450853.
- ^ "History of the Jews". Philadelphia, The Jewish Publication Society of America. 1891.
- ^ Jacob Neusner (1975). A History of the Jews in Babylonia v. Later Sasanian Times. printed in the Netherlands. p. 127. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
- ^ "The Exilarch Bustānī". The Jewish Quarterly Review. January 1908.
- ISBN 978-1-134-39986-4.
- ^ David H Kelley (2006). "THE POLITICAL ROLE OF SOLOMON, THE EXILARCH, C.715-759 CE (PART 1)" (PDF). Foundations. 2 (1): 29–46.
- ^ Landman, Isaac; Cohen, Simon (1940). "The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia ...: An Authoritative and Popular Presentation of Jews and Judaism Since the Earliest Times".
- ISBN 978-1-136-77155-2.
- ^ Kirchheim 1874, p. 16
- ^ (compare the list with the variants given in [Lazarus 1890])
- JSTOR 23588716.
- ^ Berakhot 63a,b
- ^ Jerusalem Talmud Sanhedrin 19a
- ^ Lazarus 1890, p. 65
- ^ Horayot 13b
- ^ Horayot 11b
- ^ Kilayim 32b
- ^ Yerushalmi Kilayim 32b
- ^ Sanhedrin 5a
- ^ Sanhedrin 38a
- ^ see [Lazarus 1890], p. 33)
- ^ see Bacher, "Aggadoth of the Babylonian Amoraim" pp. 34–36
- ^ who quotes Talmud Shabbat 55a
- ^ Gittin 7a; see Bacher, l.c. p. 72; idem, "Aggadoth of the Palestinian Amoraim" i. 9
- ^ Bava Metzia 91b
- ^ Hullin 92a; Bava Batra 51b
- ^ Shabbat 56b; Bava Batra 55a
- ^ Shabbat 56b
- ^ Yebamoth 115b
- ^ Zevachim 19a
- JSTOR 23552157.
- ^ Neubauer, "Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles," i. 196
- ^ Pinsker, "Likkute Kadmoniyyot," ii. 53
- ^ Harkavy, "Responsen der Geonim," p. 389
- Jewish Quarterly Review, hereafter "J. Q. R.", xv. 80
- ^ Abraham ibn Ezra, commentary to Zechariah 12:7
- ^ "J. Q. R." xv. 80 et. seq.
- ^ Lazarus 1890, pp. 180 et seq.
- ^ Bava Batra 65b
- ^ compare Harkavy, l.c.
- ^ Sukkah 10b
- ^ Menachot 33a
- ^ Shabbat 58a
- ^ Sukkah 31a
- ^ Gittin 67b
- ^ Avodah Zarah 38b
- ^ Shabbat 121b
- ^ Pesahim 76b, Levi ben Sisi; Hullin 59a, Rav; Avodah Zarah 72b, Rabba ben Huna; Eruvin 11b, Nahman versus Sheshet; Eruvin 39b, similarly; Mo'ed Katan 12a, Hanan; Pesahim 40b, Pappai
- ^ Eruvin 26a
- ^ To Huna, Gittin 7a; Yebamoth 61a; Sanhedrin 44a; to Rabba ben Huna, Shabbat 115b; to Hamnuna, Shabbat 119a
- ^ "pitha di-be resh galuta"; see Hullin 84b; Betzah 23a; Shabbat 126a; Mo'ed Katan 24a
- ^ On Sabbath Lech Lecha, as Sherira says; compare Eruvin 59a
- ^ Lamentations Rabbah 3:16
- ^ Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 74b
- ^ Shabbat 20b, according to the correct reading; see Rabbinowicz, "Dikdukei Soferim"
- ^ Jerusalem Talmud Berakhot 5a
- ^ Shevuot 6b; Jerusalem Talmud Shevuot 32d
- ^ Revue des Études Juives - hereafter R. E. J. - viii. 122
- ^ Sotah 24a, bottom
- ^ Sanhedrin 5a
- ^ Bava Batra 15b
- ^ compare Gittin 31b
- ^ Sanhedrin 27a, b
- ^ Ta'an. 68a
- ^ Bava Kamma 102b; Bava Batra 36a
- ^ Bava Kamma 58b
- ^ Bava Batra 55a
- ^ Sotah 22a
- JSTOR 23515471.
- ^ Metnon, A.F. The Book of Destiny. King David Press, 1996, p. 393
- ISBN 1-892746-69-7pg. 31
- ^ ii. 83 et seq.
- ^ "R. E. J." viii. 122 et. seq.
- ^ ibid. p. 125
- ^ ibid. p. 123
- ^ ibid., p. 125
External links
- Iranian Encyclopedia on Exilarchs under Arab rule
- Jewish Virtual Library- Exilarch
- Early Babylonian Exilarchate- GOTHOD Archived 2021-07-30 at the Wayback Machine
- Revolutionary article by professor M. Gintzler of Yeshivat Chevron: "שלשלת ראשי גולת בבל מחורבן בית ראשון ועד המאה ה־14" in Mekhilta IV Sep 2022 https://www.academia.edu/89141205 Archived 2021-07-30 at the Wayback Machine Hebrew University of Jerusalem