Harmful algal bloom
A harmful algal bloom (HAB), or excessive algae growth, is an
It is sometimes unclear what causes specific HABs as their occurrence in some locations appears to be entirely natural,[4] while in others they appear to be a result of human activities.[5] In certain locations there are links to particular drivers like nutrients, but HABs have also been occurring since before humans started to affect the environment. HABs are induced by eutrophication, which is an overabundance of nutrients in the water. The two most common nutrients are fixed nitrogen (nitrates, ammonia, and urea) and phosphate.[6] The excess nutrients are emitted by agriculture, industrial pollution, excessive fertilizer use in urban/suburban areas, and associated urban runoff. Higher water temperature and low circulation also contribute.[citation needed]
HABs can cause significant harm to animals, the environment and economies. They have been increasing in size and frequency worldwide, a fact that many experts attribute to global climate change. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) predicts more harmful blooms in the Pacific Ocean.[7] Potential remedies include chemical treatment, additional reservoirs, sensors and monitoring devices, reducing nutrient runoff, research and management as well as monitoring and reporting.[citation needed]
Terrestrial runoff, containing fertilizer, sewage and livestock wastes, transports abundant nutrients to the seawater and stimulates bloom events. Natural causes, such as river floods or
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Description and identification
HABs from cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) can appear as a foam, scum, or mat on or just below the surface of water and can take on various colors depending on their pigments.[6] Cyanobacteria blooms in freshwater lakes or rivers may appear bright green, often with surface streaks that look like floating paint.[8] Cyanobacterial blooms are a global problem.[9]
Most blooms occur in warm waters with excessive nutrients.[6] The harmful effects from such blooms are due to the toxins they produce or from using up oxygen in the water which can lead to fish die-offs.[10] Not all algal blooms produce toxins, however, with some only discoloring water, producing a smelly odor, or adding a bad taste to the water. Unfortunately, it is not possible to tell if a bloom is harmful from just appearances, since sampling and microscopic examination is required.[6] In many cases microscopy is not sufficient to tell the difference between toxic and non-toxic populations. In these cases, tools can be employed to measure the toxin level or to determine if the toxin-production genes are present.[11]
Terminology
In a narrow definition, harmful algal blooms are only those blooms that release toxins that affect other species. On the other hand, any algal bloom can cause dead zones due to low oxygen levels, and could therefore be called "harmful" in that sense. The usage of the term "harmful algal blooms" in the media and scientific literature is varied. In a broader definition, all "organisms and events are considered to be HABs if they negatively impact human health or socioeconomic interests or are detrimental to aquatic systems".[12] A harmful algal bloom is "a societal concept rather than a scientific definition".[12]
A similarly broad definition of HABs was adopted by the US Environmental Protection Agency in 2008 who stated that HABs include "potentially toxic (auxotrophic, heterotrophic) species and high-biomass producers that can cause hypoxia and anoxia and indiscriminate mortalities of marine life after reaching dense concentrations, whether or not toxins are produced".[1]
Red tide
Harmful algal bloom in coastal areas are also often referred to as "red tides".
As a technical term, it is being replaced in favor of more precise terminology, including the generic term "harmful algal bloom" for harmful species, and "algal bloom" for benign species.[citation needed]
Types
There are three main types of phytoplankton which can form into harmful algal blooms:
Cyanobacteria
Harmful algal blooms in freshwater lakes and rivers, or at
In August 2021, there were 47 lakes confirmed to have algal blooms in New York State alone.[23][24] In September 2021, Spokane County's Environmental Programs issued a HAB alert for Newman Lake following tests showing potentially harmful toxicity levels for cyanobacteria,[25] while in the same month record-high levels of microcystins were reported leading to an extended 'Do Not Drink' advisory for 280 households at Clear Lake, California's second-largest freshwater lake.[26] Water conditions in Florida, meanwhile, continue to deteriorate under increasing nutrient inflows, causing severe HAB events in both freshwater and marine areas.[27]
HABs also cause harm by blocking the sunlight used by plants and algae to photosynthesise, or by depleting the dissolved oxygen needed by fish and other aquatic animals, which can lead to fish die-offs.[10] When such oxygen-depleted water covers a large area for an extended period of time, it can become hypoxic or even anoxic; these areas are commonly called dead zones. These dead zones can be the result of numerous different factors ranging from natural phenomenon to deliberate human intervention, and are not just limited to large bodies of fresh water as found in the great lakes, but are also prone to bodies of salt water as well.[28]
Dual-stage life systems of algal species
Many of the species that form harmful algae blooms will undergo a dual-stage life system. These species will alternate between a benthic resting stage and a pelagic vegetative state. The benthic resting stage corresponds to when these species are resting near the ocean floor. In this stage, the species cells are waiting for optimal conditions so that they can move towards the surface. These species will then transition from the benthic resting stage into the pelagic vegetative state - where they are more active and found near the water body surface. In the pelagic vegetative state, these cells are able to grow and multiply. It is within the pelagic vegetative state that a bloom is able to occur - as the cells rapidly reproduce and take over the upper regions of the body of water. The transition between these two life stages can have multiple effects on the algae bloom (such as rapid termination of the HAB as cells convert from the pelagic state to the benthic state). Many of the algal species that undergo this dual-stage life cycle are capable of rapid vertical migration. This migration is required for the movement from the benthic area of bodies of water to the pelagic zone. These species require immense amounts of energy as they pass through the various thermoclines, haloclines, and pycnoclines that are associated with the bodies of water in which these cells exist.[29]
Diatoms and dinoflagellates (in marine coastal areas)
In 2019,
In February 2020, Roodeplaat Dam in Gauteng Province, South Africa was treated with a new algicide formulation against a severe bloom of Microcystis sp. This formulation allows the granular product to float and slow-release its active ingredient, sodium percarbonate, that releases hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), on the water surface. Consequently, the effective concentrations are limited, vertically, to the surface of the water; and spatially to areas where cyanobacteria are abundant. This provide the aquatic organisms a "safe haven" in untreated areas and avoids the adverse effects associated with the use of standard algicides.[194]
Bioactive compounds isolated from terrestrial and aquatic plants, particularly seaweeds, have seen results as a more environmentally friendly control for HABs. Molecules found in seaweeds such as Corallina, Sargassum, and Saccharina japonica have shown to inhibit some bloom-forming microalgae. In addition to their anti-microalgal effects, the bioactive molecules found in these seaweeds also have antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties.[190]
Removal of HABs using aluminum-modified clay
Other chemicals are being tested for their efficacy for removing cyanobacteria during blooms. Modified clays, such as aluminum chloride modified clay (AC-MC), aluminum sulfide modified clay (AS-MC) and polyaluminum chloride modified clay (PAC-MC) have shown positive results in vitro for the removal of Aureococcus by trapping the microalgae in the sediment of clay, removing it from the top layer of water where harmful blooms can occur.[192]
Many efforts have been made in an attempt to control HAB's so that the harm that they cause can be kept at a minimum. Studies into the use of clay to control HAB's have proven that this method may be an effective way to reduce the negative effects caused by HAB's. The addition of
In the Netherlands, successful algae and phosphate removal from surface water has been obtained by pumping affected water through a hydrodynamic separator. The treated water is then free from algae and contains a significant lower amount of phosphate since the removed algae cells contain a lot of phosphate. The treated water also gets a lower turbidity. Future projects will study the positive effects on the ecology and marine life as it is expected plant life will be restored and a reduction in bottom dwelling fish will automatically reduce the turbidity of the cleaned water. The removed algae and phosphate may find its way not as waste but as infeed to bio digesters.
Additional reservoirs
Other experts have proposed building reservoirs to prevent the movement of algae downstream. However, that can lead to the growth of algae within the reservoir, which become sediment traps with a resultant buildup of nutrients.[189] Some researchers found that intensive blooms in reservoirs were the primary source of toxic algae observed downstream, but the movement of algae has so far been less studied, although it is considered a likely cause of algae transport.[191][196]
Restoring shellfish populations
The decline of filter-feeding shellfish populations, such as
Improved monitoring
Other remedies include using improved monitoring methods, trying to improve predictability, and testing new potential methods of controlling HABs.[72] Some countries surrounding the Baltic Sea, which has the world's largest dead zone, have considered using massive geoengineering options, such as forcing air into bottom layers to aerate them.[124]
Mathematical models are useful to predict future algal blooms.[44]
Sensors and monitoring devices
A growing number of scientists agree that there is an urgent need to protect the public by being able to forecast harmful algal blooms.[201] One way they hope to do that is with sophisticated sensors which can help warn about potential blooms.[202] The same types of sensors can also be used by water treatment facilities to help them prepare for higher toxic levels.[201][203]
The only sensors now in use are located in the Gulf of Mexico. In 2008 similar sensors in the Gulf forewarned of an increased level of toxins that led to a shutdown of shellfish harvesting in Texas along with a recall of mussels, clams, and oysters, possibly saving many lives. With an increase in the size and frequency of HABs, experts state the need for significantly more sensors located around the country.[201] The same kinds of sensors can also be used to detect threats to drinking water from intentional contamination.[204]
Satellite and remote sensing technologies are growing in importance for monitoring, tracking, and detecting HABs.
Examples
Notable occurrences
- Lingulodinium polyedrum produces brilliant displays of bioluminescence in warm coastal waters. Seen in Southern California regularly since at least 1901.[211]
- The largest algal bloom on record was the 1991 Darling River cyanobacterial bloom in Australia, largely of Anabaena circinalis, between October and December 1991 over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) of the Barwon and Darling Rivers.[212]
- 1530: First alleged case off the Florida Gulf Coast is without foundation.[213] According to Marine Lab at University of Miami, the first possible Red Tide in Florida was in 1844. Earlier "signs" were from boats sorting fish on their way to home port dumping trash fish overboard. Thus "dead fish" reports along the coast were not Red Tide.[214]
- 1793: The first recorded case occurring in British Columbia, Canada.[215]
- 1840: No deaths of humans have been attributed to Florida red tide, but people may experience respiratory irritation (coughing, sneezing, and tearing) when the red tide organism (Karenia brevis) is present along a coast and winds blow its aerosolized toxins. Swimming is usually safe, but skin irritation and burning is possible in areas of high concentration of red tide.[216]
- 1844: First possible case off the Florida Gulf Coast according to Marine Lab University of Miami, probably by ships off shore, no known inhabitants of the coast reporting.[214]
- 1916: Massive fish kill along SW Florida coast. Noxious air thought to be seismic underwater explosion releasing chlorine gas.[217]
- 1947: Southwest Florida: A massive bloom that lasts close a year almost destroys the commercial fishing industry and sponge beds. The resulting poisoned surf caused beaches to need to be evacuated.[218]
- 1972: A red tide was caused in New England by a toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium (Gonyaulax) tamarense. The red tides caused by the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax are serious because this organism produces saxitoxin and gonyautoxins which accumulate in shellfish and if ingested may lead to paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and can lead to death.[219]
- 1972 and 1973: Red tides killed two villagers west of Port Moresby. In March 1973 a red tide invaded Port Moresby Harbour and destroyed a Japanese pearl farm.[220]
- In 1972, a red tide was caused in New England by a toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium (Gonyaulax) tamarense.[221]
- 1976: The first PSP case in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo where 202 victims were reported to be suffering and 7 deaths.[215][222][223]
- 1987: A red algae bloom in Prince Edward Island caused over a million dollars in losses.[224]
- 2005: The Canadian red tide was discovered to have come further south than it has in years prior by the ship (R/V) Oceanus,[225] closing shellfish beds in Maine and Massachusetts and alerting authorities as far south as Montauk (Long Island, NY) to check their beds.[226] Experts who discovered the reproductive cysts in the seabed warn of a possible spread to Long Island in the future, halting the area's fishing and shellfish industry and threatening the tourist trade, which constitutes a significant portion of the island's economy.
- In 2008 large blooms of the algae Cochlodinium polykrikoid were found along the Chesapeake Bay and nearby tributaries such as the James River, causing millions of dollars in damage and numerous beach closures.[67]
- In 2009, Brittany, France experienced recurring macroalgal blooms caused by the high amount of fertilizer discharging in the sea due to intensive pig farming, causing lethal gas emissions that have led to one case of human unconsciousness and three animal deaths.[227]
- In 2010, dissolved iron in the ash from the North Atlantic.[228]
- 2011: Northern California[229]
- 2011: Gulf of Mexico[230]
- In 2013, an algal bloom was caused in Qingdao, China, by sea lettuce.[231]
- 2013: In January, a red tide occurred again on the West Coast Sea of Sabah in the Malaysian Borneo.[222][232] Two human fatalities were reported after they consumed shellfish contaminated with the red tide toxin.[222][223][232]
- 2013: In January, a red tide bloom appeared at Sarasota beach – mainly Siesta Key, Florida causing a fish kill that had a negative impact on tourists, and caused respiratory issues for beach-goers.[233]
- In 2014, Myrionecta rubra (previously known as Mesodinium rubrum), a ciliate protist that ingests cryptomonad algae, caused a bloom in southeastern coast of Brazil.[234]
- In 2014, blue green algae caused a bloom in the western basin of Lake Erie, poisoning the Toledo, Ohio water system connected to 500,000 people.[235]
- 2014: In August, massive 'Florida red tide' 90 miles (140 km) long and 60 miles (97 km) wide.[236]
- 2015: June, 12 persons hospitalized in the Philippine province of Bohol for red tide poisoning.[237]
- 2015: August, several beaches in the Netherlands between Katwijk and Scheveningen were plagued. Government institutions dissuaded swimmers from entering the water.[238]
- 2015: September, a red tide bloom occurred in the Gulf of Mexico, affecting Padre Island National Seashore along North Padre Island and South Padre Island in Texas.[239]
- 2017 and 2018: K. brevis red tide algae with warnings not to swim, state of emergency declared, dead dolphin and manatee, worsened by Caloosahatchee River. Peaked in the summer of 2018. Toxic harmful algae bloom red tide in Southwest Florida.[240][241][242] A rare harmful algal bloom along Florida's east coast of Palm Beach County occurred the weekend of September 30, 2018.[243]
- In 2019, blue-green algae, or Cyanobacteria blooms,[244] were again problematic on Lake Erie. In early August 2019, satellite images depicted a bloom stretching up to 1,300 square kilometers, with the epicentre near Toledo, Ohio.[245] The largest Lake Erie bloom to date occurred in 2015, exceeding the severity index at 10.5 and in 2011 at a 10.[246] A large bloom does not necessarily mean the cyanobacteria ... will produce toxins", said Michael McKay, of the University of Windsor. Water quality testing was underway in August.[245][246]
- In 2019, a bloom of Noctiluca algae caused bioluminescent glow off the coast of Chennai, India. Similar blooms have been reported annually in the northern Arabian Sea since the early 2000s.[247]
- 2021: In July, a large red tide occurred on the Gulf Coast of Florida in and around Tampa Bay. The event has caused the death of millions of pounds of fish,[248] and led to the National Weather Service declaring a Beach Hazard.[249]
- 2021: in October, the mass deaths of shellfish (specifically crabs and lobster) on the beaches of Northern England, led to and algal bloom being blamed as the cause by the UK Government. However, those who work in the fishing industry in the area, and some academics, have stated that pyridine poisoning is the cause.[250][251]
- 2023: A blue-green algae bloom occurred in UK and Ireland were 40% of Northern Ireland gets its tap water from. It is caused by Northern Ireland experiencing both the wettest and hottest summer on record making conditions perfect for blue-green algae. Poor management of the Lough is being blammed. The bloom has killed dogs and wildlife, including swans.[252]
United States
In July 2016 Florida declared a state of emergency for four counties as a result of blooms. They were said to be "destroying" a number of businesses and affecting local economies, with many needing to shut down entirely.[253] Some beaches were closed, and hotels and restaurants suffered a drop in business. Tourist sporting activities such as fishing and boating were also affected.[254][255]
In 2019, the biggest
On the U.S. coasts
The Gulf of Maine frequently experiences blooms of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense, an organism that produces saxitoxin, the neurotoxin responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning. The well-known "Florida red tide" that occurs in the Gulf of Mexico is a HAB caused by Karenia brevis, another dinoflagellate which produces brevetoxin, the neurotoxin responsible for neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. California coastal waters also experience seasonal blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia, a diatom known to produce domoic acid, the neurotoxin responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning.
The term red tide is most often used in the US to refer to Karenia brevis blooms in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, also called the Florida red tide. K. brevis is one of many different species of the genus Karenia found in the world's oceans. [258]
Major advances have occurred in the study of dinoflagellates and their genomics. Some include identification of the toxin-producing genes (PKS genes), exploration of environmental changes (temperature, light/dark, etc.) have on gene expression, as well as an appreciation of the complexity of the Karenia genome.[258] These blooms have been documented since the 1800s, and occur almost annually along Florida's coasts.[258]
There was increased research activity of harmful algae blooms (HABs) in the 1980s and 1990s. This was primarily driven by media attention from the discovery of new HAB organisms and the potential adverse health effects of their exposure to animals and humans.[259][full citation needed] The Florida red tides have been observed to have spread as far as the eastern coast of Mexico.[258] The density of these organisms during a bloom can exceed tens of millions of cells per litre of seawater, and often discolor the water a deep reddish-brown hue.
Red tide is also sometimes used to describe harmful algal blooms on the northeast coast of the United States, particularly in the Gulf of Maine. This type of bloom is caused by another species of dinoflagellate known as Alexandrium fundyense. These blooms of organisms cause severe disruptions in fisheries of these waters, as the toxins in these organism cause filter-feeding shellfish in affected waters to become poisonous for human consumption due to saxitoxin.[260]
The related Alexandrium monilatum is found in subtropical or tropical shallow seas and estuaries in the western Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the eastern Pacific Ocean.
Texas
Natural water reservoirs in Texas have been threatened by anthropogenic activities due to large petroleum refineries and oil wells (i.e. emission and wastewater discharge), massive agricultural activities (i.e. pesticide release) and mining extractions (i.e. toxic wastewater) as well as natural phenomena involving frequent HAB events. For the first time in 1985, the state of Texas documented the presence of the P. parvum (golden alga) bloom along the Pecos River. This phenomenon has affected 33 reservoirs in Texas along major river systems, including the Brazos, Canadian, Rio Grande, Colorado, and Red River, and has resulted in the death of more than 27 million fish and caused tens of millions of dollars in damage.[261]
Chesapeake Bay
The Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in the U.S., has suffered from repeated large algal blooms for decades due to chemical runoff from multiple sources,[262] including 9 large rivers and 141 smaller streams and creeks in parts of six states. In addition, the water is quite shallow and only 1% of the waste entering it gets flushed into the ocean.[50]
By weight, 60% of the phosphates entering the bay in 2003 were from sewage treatment plants, while 60% of its nitrates came from fertilizer runoff, farm animal waste, and the atmosphere.[50] About 300 million pounds (140 Gg) of nitrates are added to the bay each year.[263] The population increase in the bay watershed, from 3.7 million people in 1940 to 18 million in 2015 is also a major factor,[50] as economic growth leads to the increased use of fertilizers and rising emissions of industrial waste.[264][265]
As of 2015, the six states and the local governments in the Chesapeake watershed have upgraded their sewage treatment plants to control nutrient discharges. The
Lake Erie
Recent algae blooms in Lake Erie have been fed primarily by agricultural runoff and have led to warnings for some people in Canada and Ohio not to drink their water.[268][269] The International Joint Commission has called on United States and Canada to drastically reduce phosphorus loads into Lake Erie to address the threat.[270][271][272]
Green Bay
Green Bay has a dead zone caused by phosphorus pollution that appears to be getting worse.[273]
Okeechobee Waterway
Lake Okeechobee is an ideal habitat for cyanobacteria because its shallow, sunny, and laden with nutrients from Florida's agriculture.[274] The Okeechobee Waterway connects the lake to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico through the St. Lucie River and the Caloosahatchee respectively. This means that harmful algal blooms are carried down the estuaries as water is released during the wet summer months. In July 2018 up to 90% of Lake Okeechobee was covered in algae.[275][276] Water draining from the lake filled the region with a noxious odor and caused respiratory problems in some humans during the following month.[277] To make matters worse, harmful red tide blooms are historically common on Florida's coasts during these same summer months.[278] Cyanobacteria in the rivers die as they reach saltwater but their nitrogen fixation feeds the red tide on the coast.[278] Areas at the mouth of the estuaries such as Cape Coral and Port St. Lucie therefore experience the compounded effects of both types of harmful algal bloom. Cleanup crews hired by authorities in Lee County - where the Caloosahatchee meets the Gulf of Mexico - removed more than 1700 tons of dead marine life in August 2018.[279]
Baltic Sea
In 2020, a large harmful algal bloom closed beaches in Poland and Finland, brought on by a combination of fertilizer runoff and extreme heat, posing a risk to flounder and mussel beds.[280][281] This is seen by the Baltic Sea Action Group as a threat to biodiversity and regional fishing stocks.[282]
Coastal seas of Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan
Open defecation is common in south Asia, but human waste is an often overlooked source of nutrient pollution in marine pollution modeling. When nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) contributed by human waste was included in models for Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, the estimated N and P inputs to bodies of water increased one to two orders of magnitude compared to previous models.[46] River export of nutrients to coastal seas increases coastal eutrophication potential (ICEP). The ICEP of the Godavari River is three times higher when N and P inputs from human waste are included.
See also
- Brevetoxin
- Ciguatera
- Cyanobacterial bloom
- Cyanotoxin
- GEOHAB - an international research programme on the Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful algal blooms
- Milky seas effect – A phenomenon in which disturbed red algae dinoflagellates will make the water glow blue, at night
- Pfiesteria
- Thin layers (oceanography)
- Water quality
- Water security
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