Harold Holt
Minister for Immigration | |
---|---|
In office 19 December 1949 – 24 October 1956 | |
Prime Minister | Robert Menzies |
Preceded by | Arthur Calwell |
Succeeded by | Athol Townley |
Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research | |
In office 28 October 1940 – 28 August 1941 | |
Prime Minister | Robert Menzies |
Preceded by | Herbert Collett |
Succeeded by | John Dedman |
Member of the Australian Parliament for Higgins | |
In office 10 December 1949 – 19 December 1967 | |
Succeeded by | John Gorton |
Member of the Australian Parliament for Fawkner | |
In office 17 August 1935 – 10 December 1949 | |
Preceded by | George Maxwell |
Succeeded by | Bill Bourke |
Personal details | |
Born | Harold Edward Holt 5 August 1908 Victoria, Australia |
Cause of death | Drowning (presumed) |
Political party | United Australia (until 1945) Liberal (after 1945) |
Spouse | |
Relations | Vera Pearce (aunt) |
Children | 3 |
Alma mater | University of Melbourne |
Profession | Lawyer |
Signature | |
Nickname | Gunner Holt |
Military service | |
Branch/service | Australian Imperial Force |
Years of service | 1939–1940 |
Rank | Gunner |
Unit | 2/4th Field Regiment |
Battles/wars | World War II |
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Term of government (1966–1967)
Ministries Elections |
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Harold Edward Holt
Holt was born in Sydney and moved to Melbourne in childhood, studying law at the University of Melbourne. Before entering politics he practised law and was a lobbyist for cinema operators. He was first elected to the House of Representatives at the age of 27, becoming a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Fawkner at a by-election in 1935.[2] A member of the United Australia Party (UAP), Holt was made a minister without portfolio in 1939, when his mentor Robert Menzies became prime minister. His tenure in the ministry was interrupted by a brief stint in the Australian Army, which ended when he was recalled to cabinet following the deaths of three ministers in the 1940 Canberra air disaster. The government was defeated in 1941, sending the UAP into opposition, and he joined the new Liberal Party upon its creation in 1945.
When the Liberals came to office
Holt became prime minister in January 1966,
In December 1967, Holt
Early life
Birth and family background
Holt was born on 5 August 1908 at his parents' home in
Education
In 1914, Holt's parents moved to Adelaide, where his father became the licensee of a hotel in Payneham. He and his brother stayed behind in Sydney, living with an uncle and attending Randwick Public School. In late 1916, Holt was sent to live with grandparents in the country, where he briefly attended the Nubba State School. He returned to Sydney the following year, and for three years was enrolled at Abbotsholme College, a private school in Killara; his parents separated around that time.[3] In 1920, Holt began boarding at Wesley College, Melbourne. He was a popular and talented student, winning a scholarship in his final year and graduating second in his class. Holt generally spent school holidays with his relatives in Nubba or with schoolmates, rather than with his parents – his father had begun working as a talent agent, touring the country on the Tivoli circuit, while his mother died in 1925. He was 16 at the time, and was unable to attend the funeral.[5]
In 1927, Holt began studying law at the
Legal career
Holt served his
Early political career
In 1933, Holt joined the
Holt was twenty-seven years old when he entered parliament, making him its youngest member. He kept a relatively low profile in his first few years, but spoke on a wide range of topics.
World War II
Holt enlisted in the Militia in February 1939, joining a part-time artillery unit for businessmen and professionals. He was given indefinite leave during his ministerial service.[20] In May 1940, without resigning his seat, Holt enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force with the intent of becoming a full-time soldier. Several of his parliamentary colleagues did likewise at various points in the war.[c] Holt was posted to the 2/4th Field Regiment, holding the rank of gunner. He had been offered a commission as an officer in the Royal Australian Air Force, but declined due to his lack of experience. In a press statement, Holt said "as the youngest member of the House, I could not feel happy in my position if I were not prepared to make some sacrifice and take an active part".[21] He was sent to Puckapunyal for training, and expected to be posted to North Africa or Palestine.[23]
Holt's brief military career came to an end as a result of the
As labour minister, Holt's foremost task was to prevent industrial disputes from disrupting the war effort.
Holt retained his portfolios in the
Postwar ministerial career
After eight years in opposition, the Coalition won the
Holt excelled in the Labour portfolio and has been described as one of the best Labour ministers since Federation. Although the conditions were ripe for industrial unrest—Communist influence in the union movement was then at its peak, and the right-wing faction in Cabinet was openly agitating for a showdown with the unions—the combination of strong economic growth and Holt's enlightened approach to industrial relations saw the number of working hours lost to strikes fall dramatically, from over two million in 1949 to just 439,000 in 1958. He also had ministerial responsibility for the Melbourne Olympics in 1956.[36]
Holt fostered greater collaboration between the government, the courts, employers and trade unions. He enjoyed good relationships with union leaders like Albert Monk, President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions; and Jim Healy, leader of the radical Waterside Workers Federation;and he gained a reputation for tolerance, restraint and a willingness to compromise, although his controversial decision to use troops to take control of cargo facilities during a waterside dispute in Bowen, Queensland in September 1953 provoked bitter criticism.
Holt's personal profile and political standing grew throughout the 1950s. He served on numerous committees and overseas delegations, he was appointed a
Treasurer (1958–1966)
In December 1958, following the retirement of
The economy Holt inherited was growing strongly, aided by the opening of new iron ore mines.
The credit squeeze brought the Coalition dangerously close to losing the 1961 election, with the Coalition being returned with a precarious one-seat majority. There were calls for Holt to be sacked, but he retained Menzies' support.[43] He later described 1960–61 as "my most difficult year in public life". Most of the deflationary measures were reversed in 1962,[39] and unemployment dropped down to 1.5 percent by August 1963.[44] In later budgets, Holt retreated to his Queensland holiday home while it was being prepared.[45] He said that the 1965 budget "has had the best reception yet of any in the series I have presented".[46]
Prime Minister (1966–1967)
Holt was sworn in as prime minister on 26 January 1966, following the retirement of Robert Menzies six days earlier. He won the leadership election unopposed, with William McMahon elected as his deputy.[47] His swearing in was delayed by the death of Defence Minister Shane Paltridge; he and Menzies were both pallbearers at Paltridge's state funeral on 25 January.[48][49] Holt was the first Australian prime minister born in the 20th century and the first born after federation. He was almost fourteen years younger than his predecessor, but, at the age of 57, was still the fourth-oldest man to assume the office.
He had been an MP for over 30 years before becoming prime minister, still the longest wait for any non-caretaker Prime Minister. The only person who had a longer wait was his caretaker successor John McEwen, who had served 33 years before ascending to the post.[50] Stylistically, Holt was more informal and contemporary than Menzies, and his wife accompanied him into the political spotlight.[47] He gave the media an unprecedented level of access, and was the first prime minister to conduct regular press conferences and grant regular television interviews. His press secretary, Tony Eggleton, accompanied him virtually every time he travelled.[51]
Elections
External videos | |
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Newsreel footage of the 1966 election from Pathé News |
On 26 November 1966, Holt fought his first and only general election as prime minister, winning a somewhat unexpected landslide victory. The Coalition secured 56.9 percent of the two-party-preferred vote, gaining 10 seats and bringing its total number of seats in the House of Representatives to 82 out of 124, the largest majority government in Australian history at the time. The Liberals finished only two seats away from forming majority government in its own right. It was a higher margin of victory than Menzies had achieved in eight elections as Liberal leader, and was the Labor Party's worst electoral defeat in 31 years.[54]
Holt received little credit for the Coalition's election victory, even from within his own party.
In early 1967, Calwell retired as ALP leader. Whitlam succeeded him, and proved a far more effective opponent than Calwell had been, consistently getting the better of Holt both in the media and in parliament. Labor soon began to recover from its losses and gain ground.[7] By this time, the long-suppressed tensions between the Coalition partners over economic and trade policies were also beginning to emerge. Throughout his reign as Liberal leader, Menzies had enforced strict party discipline but, once he was gone, dissension began to surface. Some Liberals soon became dissatisfied by what they saw as Holt's weak leadership. Alan Reid asserts that Holt was being increasingly criticised within the party in the months before his death, that he was perceived as being "vague, imprecise and evasive" and "nice to the point that his essential decency was viewed as weakness".
Domestic policy
According to his biographer Tom Frame, "Holt's inclinations and sympathies were those of the political centre [...] he was a pragmatist rather than a philosopher, but he nonetheless claimed a philosophical lineage connecting him with Alfred Deakin and approvingly quoted his statement that 'we are liberal always, radical often, and reactionary never'."[58]
Economy
Holt as prime minister was sometimes criticised for a failure to be assertive on economic matters. A major
Immigration
As prime minister, Holt continued the liberalisation of immigration law that he had begun as Minister for Immigration. When he came to office, what remained of the
Keith Wilson believed that the Holt government's reforms ensured that "from now on there will not be in any of our laws or in any of our regulations anything that discriminates against migrants on the grounds of colour or race". However, there would not be a practical change in the composition of Australia's immigration intake for many more years.[66] Holt maintained that "every country reserves to itself the right to decide what the composition of its people shall be", and promised "a community life free from serious minority and racial problems".[67] He was careful to frame his changes as simply a modification of existing policy, in order to avoid alienating organised labour (historically the greatest supporters of restricting non-white immigration).[59] The Labor Party had only removed "White Australia" from its platform in 1965, and Opposition Leader Arthur Calwell stated he was "determined to continue to oppose, for many obvious reasons, any attempt to create a multi-racial society in our midst".[68] However, Holt was less circumspect outside Australia, telling British journalists that no White Australia policy existed and ordering Australian embassies to promote the changes to Asian governments and media outlets.[62][69]
Constitutional reform
In 1967, the Holt government amended the constitution to alter
Holt came to regard the referendum as indicative of a shift in the national mood. In the following months, he toured Aboriginal communities and consulted with indigenous leaders, including
The Holt government also unsuccessfully attempted to remove
The arts
In November 1967, in one of his last major policy statements, Holt announced the establishment of the
Foreign policy
Holt believed it was his responsibility as prime minister "to reflect the modern Australia to my fellow countrymen, to our allies and the outside world at large".[80] His approach to national security emphasised opposition to international communism and the need to engage more with Asia. Holt said that the "great central fact of modern history" was "the tremendous power conflict between the communist world and the free world".[81] He was a strong believer in the domino theory and containment, holding that communism had to be fought wherever it occurred in order to prevent it spreading to neighbouring countries.[57] In April 1967, Holt told parliament that "geographically we are part of Asia, and increasingly we have become aware of our involvement in the affairs of Asia – our greatest dangers and our highest hopes are centred in Asia's tomorrows".[82] Gough Whitlam said that Holt "made Australia better known in Asia and he made Australians more aware of Asia than ever before [...] this I believe was his most important contribution to our future".[83]
Personal diplomacy was Holt's strong point – he believed diplomatic ties could be strengthened by making intimate connections with other world leaders.[84] This approach was disliked by his external affairs minister, Paul Hasluck, who in his memoirs accused him of believing in "instant diplomacy" and crediting his personal charms for advances made by diplomatic officials.[85] As prime minister, Holt's first overseas trip was to South-East Asia in April 1966, where he visited Malaysia, Singapore, South Vietnam, and Thailand.[86] He toured Cambodia, Laos, South Korea, and Taiwan in March and April 1967, and had planned to visit Burma, India, Indonesia, Japan, and Pakistan in 1968.[87] Most of those countries had never before been visited by an Australian prime minister.[88] There were also a number of reciprocal visits from East Asian leaders, including Eisaku Satō of Japan, Souvanna Phouma of Laos, and Thanom Kittikachorn of Thailand.[87] The most controversial of those occurred in January 1967, when Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ of South Vietnam visited on Holt's personal invitation – issued without consulting cabinet. Public sentiment was beginning to turn against the war, and Ky's visit was met with large demonstrations; opposition leader Arthur Calwell issued a statement calling him a "miserable little butcher". Ky nonetheless handled himself well, and The Bulletin called his visit a "personal triumph".[89]
Vietnam War
The
In March 1966, Holt announced that the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, would be withdrawn and replaced by the 1st Australian Task Force, a self-contained brigade-sized unit based at Nui Dat. This effectively tripled the number of Australian troops in Vietnam to around 4,500, and also included 1,500 national servicemen – the first conscripts to serve in the conflict.[92] By the final months of Holt's prime ministership, Australia had over 8,000 personnel stationed in South Vietnam, drawn from all three branches of the Australian Defence Force; the final troop increase was announced in October 1967.[84] Holt "never deviated from his whole-hearted support for American bombing of North Vietnam and the hope that steadily increasing the number of foreign troops deployed to South Vietnam would lead to military victory and a solution to the crisis".[93] John Gorton later said it was "ironical that, being a man of peace, he should have presided over one of the greatest build-ups of military power that Australia has found itself engaged in".[94]
The government's handling of the war initially enjoyed broad public support, and was considered a key contributor to the landslide election victory in 1966 – referred to by some as a "khaki election".[95] By the end of the following year, however, opinion polls were showing that public sentiment had turned against the war, and previously supportive media outlets had begun to criticised Holt's decision-making.[96] He did not live long enough to see the mass demonstrations experienced by his successors. Political opposition to the war was initially led by Opposition Leader Arthur Calwell, who promised a total withdrawal from the conflict and labelled it a "cruel, unwinnable civil war".[95] His replacement, Gough Whitlam, adopted a more pragmatic approach, focusing on policy specifics (particularly the government's apparent lack of an exit strategy) rather than the validity of the war itself.[97]
"All the way with LBJ"
Holt cultivated a close relationship with the United States under President
Holt and Johnson developed a personal friendship. They were the same age, and had first met in 1942, when Johnson visited Melbourne as a naval officer; afterwards they shared a similar career trajectory. Holt visited the U.S. twice while in office, in June and July 1966, and on the latter visit was invited to stay at
On his first visit to the U.S., Holt made what was widely viewed as a faux pas while delivering a ceremonial address at the White House. Departing from his prepared remarks, he said: "And so, sir, in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader, I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend that will be all the way with LBJ."[102] Holt had meant it to be a "light-hearted gesture of goodwill towards a generous host", referencing the slogan used in Johnson's 1964 presidential campaign.[103] It was interpreted as such by his immediate audience, but once it was reported back in Australia it came to be viewed as a "foolish, sycophantic and dangerous statement" that was indicative of Australian subservience.[99] Bill Hayden said Holt's remarks "shocked and insulted many Australians [...] its seeming servility was an embarrassment and a worry".[104] Newspaper editorials generally agreed with Holt's assertion that he had been misinterpreted, but still criticised him for making an error in judgment.[105] His comments intensified anti-war sentiments among those who were already opposed to the war, but had little electoral impact. Nonetheless, "all the way with LBJ" is still remembered as Holt's "best-known utterance".[84]
Britain and the Commonwealth
Holt was a strong supporter of the Commonwealth of Nations, and believed its member states had moral obligations to one another – particularly Britain, as the former "mother country".[106] However, his relationship with Harold Wilson, the British prime minister, was somewhat frosty. He repeatedly lobbied Wilson to maintain a strong British presence "East of Suez", in order to complement American efforts, and in early 1967 received assurances that no reduction was being contemplated.[89] However, by the middle of the year Wilson had announced that Britain intended to close all of its bases in Asia by the early 1970s (except for Hong Kong).[107] In response to Holt's concerns, it was suggested by Wilson that a British naval base could be established in Cockburn Sound.[108] Holt rejected this outright, and felt that Wilson had deliberately misled him as to his intentions.[109]
Controversies
Holt's popularity and political standing was damaged by his perceived poor handling of a series of controversies that emerged during 1967. In April, the
In May, increasing pressure from the media and within the Liberal Party forced Holt to announce a parliamentary debate on the question of a
In October the government became embroiled in another embarrassing controversy over
In November 1967, the government suffered a serious setback in the senate election, winning just 42.8 per cent of the vote against Labor's 45 per cent. The coalition also lost the seats of Corio and Dawson to Labor in by-elections. Alan Reid says that, within the party, the reversal was blamed on Holt's mishandling of the V.I.P. planes scandal. Disquiet was growing about his leadership style and possible health problems.[7]
Disappearance
Holt loved the ocean, particularly spearfishing, and had holiday homes at Portsea, Victoria, and Bingil Bay, Queensland.[113] On 17 December 1967, while Holt was spending the weekend at Portsea, he and four companions decided to drive to Point Nepean to watch sailor Alec Rose pass through The Rip on his solo circumnavigation attempt. On their way back to Portsea, Holt convinced the group to stop at remote Cheviot Beach for a swim before lunch – he had spearfished there on many previous occasions, and claimed to "know this beach like the back of my hand". Because of the rough conditions, only one other person, Alan Stewart, joined Holt in the water. Stewart kept close to shore, but Holt swam out into deeper water and was seemingly caught up in a rip, eventually disappearing from view. One of the witnesses, Marjorie Gillespie, described it as "like a leaf being taken out [...] so quick and final".[114]
Holt's disappearance sparked "one of the largest search operations in Australian history", but no trace of his body was ever found.
A memorial service for Holt was held at St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, on 22 December, and attended by numerous world leaders.[120] Aged 59 at the time of his death, Holt became the third Australian prime minister to die in office, after Joseph Lyons (1939) and John Curtin (1945). John McEwen, the leader of the Country Party, was sworn in as caretaker prime minister on 19 December.[121] The Liberal Party held a leadership election on 9 January 1968, in which John Gorton defeated Paul Hasluck, Billy Snedden, and Les Bury. Gorton was a member of the Senate, and in line with constitutional convention sought and gained election to the House of Representatives at the by-election caused by Holt's death.[122]
Personal life
Relationships
While at university, Holt met Zara Dickins, the daughter of a Melbourne businessman; there was an "instant mutual attraction". They made plans to marry once Holt had graduated, but after a financial dispute chose to separate.[6] Zara went on a trip to Britain, where she was introduced to James Fell, a British Indian Army officer. She accompanied Fell to India, and then in early 1935 returned to Australia where Holt again proposed marriage. She declined his offer, and married Fell a short time later, going to live with him in Jabalpur. Holt had entered parliament by that time, and was soon being profiled as "the most eligible bachelor in parliament". He briefly dated Lola Thring, the daughter of his father's business partner, F. W. Thring, but his widowed father Tom was also interested in her (to his son's "disgust"). Tom Holt married Lola in 1936, and their daughter Frances (Harold's half-sister) was born in 1940; Tom Holt died in 1945.[123]
In 1937, Zara returned to Australia to give birth to her first child, Nicholas. She had two more children, twins Sam and Andrew, in 1939. Her marriage with Fell broke down a short time later, and in late 1940 she returned to Australia permanently and resumed a relationship with Holt. Their relationship did not become public for some time, in order to avoid Holt's being implicated in Zara's divorce proceedings.
Zara Holt was a successful businesswoman, owning a chain of dress shops, and out-earned her husband even as prime minister. It was her success that allowed the couple to purchase two holiday homes, one at Portsea, Victoria, and the other at Bingil Bay, Queensland.[128] She nonetheless made sacrifices for her husband's political career, accompanying him on all but one of his overseas trips, which could last for weeks.[k]
After her husband's death, Zara remarried in 1969 to one of his Liberal Party colleagues, Jeff Bate.[130] She was widowed a second time in 1984, and died in 1989. In a 1988 interview with The Sydney Morning Herald, Zara stated that her husband Harold had carried on "dozens" of extramarital affairs.[131] In his biography of Holt, Tom Frame wrote: "I have not included the names of women with whom Holt allegedly had a sexual relationship because I was unable to confirm or deny that most of these relationships took place […] by their very nature they were always illicit and Holt was very discreet."[132]
Personality
Holt was the first Australian Prime Minister born in the twentieth century. He was an enthusiastic sportsman and avid swimmer, in stark contrast to Menzies and the majority of his predecessors and colleagues. Like later successor Bob Hawke, this resonated with positive effect within the electorate. His oratory skills were vastly superior to that of Arthur Calwell, whom Holt resoundingly beat in 1966. Holt's rhetoric was, however, considered a match to that of new Labor leader Gough Whitlam. Whitlam himself later said of Holt:
(his) ability to establish relationships with men of different backgrounds, attitudes and interests was his essential decency. He was tolerant, humane and broadminded. His suavity of manner was no pose. It was the outward reflection of a truly civilised human being. He was in a very real sense a gentleman.[133][134][135]
— Gough Whitlam, Leader of the Opposition, March 1968
Religious beliefs
Holt has been described as an "apathetic agnostic". He was baptised Anglican, attended Methodist schools, and married with Presbyterian forms, but neither he nor his wife had any interest in religion.[136] His lack of religiosity apparently had little impact on his political prospects, and was not generally remarked upon.[137] Alick Downer believed that Holt's thoughts "lay in this world not the next".[138] According to his friend Simon Warrender, he "was an agnostic whose raison d'être was dedication to his career".[139] Holt had a reputation as something of a fatalist, and frequently quoted from Andrew Marvell's carpe diem poem "To His Coy Mistress".[140] He was also fond of Rudyard Kipling's poem "If—", which Warrender said he used as a "guiding light in his political and private life".[139]
Memorials and other legacies
Harold Holt is commemorated by the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre[141] in the Melbourne suburb of Glen Iris. The complex was under construction at the time of Holt's disappearance, and since he was the local member, it was named in his memory. The irony of commemorating a man who is presumed to have drowned with a swimming pool has been a source of wry amusement for many Australians.[142] The swimming pool within the 1st Australian Support Compound in South Vietnam was also named for him.[143]
In 1968, the newly commissioned United States Navy Knox-class destroyer escort USS Harold E. Holt was named in his honour. It was launched by Holt's widow Dame Zara at the Todd Shipyards in Los Angeles on 3 May 1969, and was the first American warship to bear the name of a foreign leader.
In 1969, a plaque commemorating Holt was bolted to the seafloor off Cheviot Beach after a memorial ceremony. It bears the inscription:
In memory of Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia, who loved the sea and disappeared hereabouts on 17 December 1967.
Other memorials include:
- the suburb of Holt, Australian Capital Territory;
- the Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt;
- the Division of Holt, an electoral district in the Australian House of Representatives in Victoria;
- a wing for boarders at Wesley College, Melbourne;
- the Harold Holt Fisheries Reserves – five protected areas in southern Port Phillip, located at Swan Bay, Point Lonsdale, Mud Islands, Point Nepean and Pope's Eye (The Annulus).
- a memorial stone within the 'Prime Ministers Garden' of Melbourne General Cemetery
By way of a folk memorial, he is recalled in the Australian vernacular expression "do a Harold Holt" (or "do the Harry"), rhyming slang for "do a bolt" meaning "to disappear suddenly and without explanation", although this is usually employed in the context of disappearance from a social gathering rather than a case of presumed death.[144]
In the Queen's Birthday Honours of June 1968, Holt's widow Zara was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, becoming Dame Zara Holt DBE.[145] She later married for a third time, to a Liberal party colleague of Holt's, Jeff Bate, and was then known as Dame Zara Bate.
The mineral holtite is named in his honor. It was discovered in Greenbushes Tinfield, Western Australia and formally described in 1971.[146][147]
See also
- First Holt ministry
- Second Holt ministry
- Presumption of death
- List of people who disappeared mysteriously: 1910–1990
Notes
- ^ Term ended on 18 December.[1]
- ^ Holt's mother was born Olive May Williams. His maternal grandmother had remarried after the death of her first husband, James Henry Williams, and her children took the name of their stepfather, Arthur Pearce.[3]
- ^ William Hutchinson and Keith Wilson, enlisted around the same time as Holt, while Thomas White had already done so.[21] In total, nine sitting MPs served in the military at some point in World War II.[22]
- ^ Five shillings per week for every child under the age of 16, excluding first-born children.[27]
- ^ Enid Lyons had served in cabinet from 1949 to 1951, but only as Vice-President of the Executive Council, a largely honorific post that did not have its own department.
- ^ Calwell had pledged to withdraw all Australian troops from Vietnam, whereas Whitlam suggested that Labor was contemplating withdrawing only conscripts and allowing the regular army to remain.[53]
- ^ The Bulletin – normally supportive of the Labor Party – accused Calwell of wanting Australia to be "a cosy little isolated British community, without people from continental Europe, let alone any other fearful regions".[53]
- ^ At a meeting in Perth in July 1967, the Aboriginal Welfare Conference of State and Commonwealth Ministers voted to preserve the status quo.[71]
- ^ Coombs said: "When we talked it became clear that Holt had little knowledge of Aborigines and was puzzled to know how the Government should go about creating an appropriate administrative agency to deal with the problems associated with them".[71] Hasluck said: "I am puzzled about Holt's role as innovator in Aboriginal affairs. In sixteen years with him in cabinet I had never known him to show any interest in Aborigines".[73]
- ^ The Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act came into effect in August 1968. It closed off appeals to the Privy Council in matters involving federal legislation, but it remained possible to appeal from state supreme courts until the passage of the Australia Act 1986.[76]
- Empire Parliamentary Association in London. It was the first time he had been outside Australia.[129]
References
Footnotes
- ^ "About Harold Holt". National Archives of Australia. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
- ^ "FAWKNER BY-ELECTION". Argus. 18 July 1935. Retrieved 20 October 2023.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-74114-672-1.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 3.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 5.
- ^ a b c Frame (2005), p. 6.
- ^ a b c d e f g Australian Dictionary of Biography. 1996
- ^ a b c Frame (2005), p. 9.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 13.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 306.
- ^ a b Frame (2005), p. 11.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 10.
- ^ Political Godmothers Rule U.A.P. With Haughty Mien, Smith's Weekly, 10 August 1935.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 12.
- ^ Frame (2005), pp. 12–15.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 16.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 17.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 18.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 19.
- ^ Frame (2005), pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b Frame (2005), p. 20.
- ^ Commonwealth Members of Parliament who have served in war: the Second World War, Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 21.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 22.
- ^ a b c Frame (2005), p. 23.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 24.
- ^ a b Frame (2005), p. 25.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 26.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 27.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 31.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 28.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 29.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 30.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 32.
- ^ How one refugee signalled the end of the White Australia policy, The Guardian Australia, 18 March 2014. Retrieved 14 December 2017.
- ^ Hawkins, John. "Harold Holt: urbane treasurer". Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012. The Treasury. p. 62. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014.
- ^ Hawkins, John. "Harold Holt: urbane treasurer". Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012. The Treasury. p. 63. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014.
- ^ Hawkins, John. "Harold Holt: urbane treasurer". Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012. The Treasury. pp. 63–64. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014.
- ^ a b Hawkins, John. "Harold Holt: urbane treasurer". Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012. The Treasury. pp. 66–67. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014.
- ^ Hawkins, John. "Harold Holt: urbane treasurer". Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012. The Treasury. pp. 64–65. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014.
- ^ Hawkins, John. "Harold Holt: urbane treasurer". Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012. The Treasury. pp. 65–66. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014.
- ^ It's half a century since Australia received the Holt Jolt, The Sydney Morning Herald, 23 February 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
- ^ Hawkins, John. "Harold Holt: urbane treasurer". Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012. The Treasury. p. 66. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 119.
- ^ Hawkins, John. "Harold Holt: urbane treasurer". Economic Roundup Issue 1, 2012. The Treasury. p. 68. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 127.
- ^ a b Frame (2005), p. 137.
- ^ "Paltridge to have state funeral", The Canberra Times, 22 January 1966. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
- ^ "Hundreds pay last respects", The Canberra Times, 26 January 1966. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
- ^ Fast facts: John McEwen Archived 12 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine National Archives of Australia. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ^ Frame (2005), pp. 147–148.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 141.
- ^ a b c d Frame (2005), p. 168.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 170.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 172.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 169.
- ^ a b Frame (2005), p. 166.
- ^ Frame (2005), pp. 133–134.
- ^ a b Frame (2005), p. 161.
- ^ Frame (2005), pp. 239–241.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 180.
- ^ a b c "New migration policy will aid Japanese", The Canberra Times, 11 March 1966. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
- ^ Frame (2005), p. 160.
- ^ "Sir Robert rejected migrant plan", The Canberra Times, 22 February 1966. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
- ^ White Australia policy – the beginning of the end 50 years ago, Museum of Australian Democracy, 9 March 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
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- ISBN 0-7679-0385-4
- ISBN 978-1555716257.
- ISBN 1-876429-52-6
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Bibliography
- ISBN 978-1-74114-672-1.
- Williams, Roy (2013). In God They Trust? The Religious Beliefs of Australia's Prime Ministers, 1901–2013. ISBN 978-0-647-51855-7.
Further reading
- ISBN 9781925501865.
- ISBN 978-1-877008-64-1.
- Hancock, Ian (2000), 'Harold Edward Holt,' in ISBN 1-86436-756-3
- Holt, Zara (1968), My Life and Harry. An Autobiography, Herald and Weekly Times, Melbourne.
- ISBN 0-19-550471-2
- ISBN 978-0-522-84258-6.
- Jupp, James (1982). Party Politics in Australia 1966–81. George Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
- Reid, Alan (1969). The Power Struggle. Shakespeare Head Press, Sydney.
- ———— (1971). The Gorton Experiment: The Fall of John Gorton. Shakespeare Head Press, Sydney.
- ISBN 978-0-333-25248-2.
- Walker, Ross (2022). Harold Holt: Always one step further. La Trobe University Press. ISBN 978-1-76064-383-6.
External links
- Harold Holt– Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
- Hancock, I. R. (1996). "Holt, Harold Edward (1908–1967)". ISSN 1833-7538. Retrieved 29 June 2010.