Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman | |
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33rd President of the United States | |
In office April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1953 | |
Vice President |
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Preceded by | Franklin D. Roosevelt |
Succeeded by | Dwight D. Eisenhower |
34th Vice President of the United States | |
In office January 20, 1945 – April 12, 1945 | |
President | Franklin D. Roosevelt |
Preceded by | Henry A. Wallace |
Succeeded by | Alben W. Barkley |
United States Senator from Missouri | |
In office January 3, 1935 – January 17, 1945 | |
Preceded by | Roscoe C. Patterson |
Succeeded by | Frank P. Briggs |
Presiding Judge of Jackson County, Missouri | |
In office January 1, 1927[1] – January 1, 1935[1] | |
Preceded by | Elihu W. Hayes[2] |
Succeeded by | Eugene I. Purcell[3] |
Judge of Jackson County, Missouri's Eastern District | |
In office January 1, 1923[4] – January 1, 1925[4] | |
Preceded by | James E. Gilday[5] |
Succeeded by | Henry Rummel[3] |
Personal details | |
Born | Lamar, Missouri, U.S. | May 8, 1884
Died | December 26, 1972 Kansas City, Missouri, U.S. | (aged 88)
Resting place | Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum, Independence, Missouri |
Political party | Democratic |
Spouse |
Martha Ellen Young (mother) |
Relatives |
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Occupation |
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Signature | |
Military service | |
Allegiance | United States |
Branch/service | United States Army |
Years of service |
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Rank | Colonel (Army Reserve) |
Commands |
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Battles | |
Awards | |
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Senator from Missouri
33rd President of the United States
First term Second term Presidential and Vice presidential campaigns Post-presidency
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Harry S. Truman
Truman was raised in Independence, Missouri, and during World War I fought in France as a captain in the Field Artillery. Returning home, he opened a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and was elected as a judge of Jackson County in 1922. Truman was elected to the United States Senate from Missouri in 1934. Between 1940 and 1944, he gained national prominence as chairman of the Truman Committee, which was aimed at reducing waste and inefficiency in wartime contracts.
Truman was elected vice president in the
Truman presided over the onset of the
Investigations revealed corruption in parts of the Truman administration, and this became a major campaign issue in the 1952 presidential election, although they did not implicate Truman himself. He was eligible for reelection in 1952, but with poor polling, he chose not to run. Truman went into a retirement marked by the founding of his presidential library and the publication of his memoirs. It was long thought that his retirement years were financially difficult for Truman, resulting in Congress establishing a pension for former presidents, but evidence eventually emerged that he amassed considerable wealth, some of it while still president. When he left office, Truman's administration was heavily criticized, though critical reassessment of his presidency has improved his reputation among historians and the general population.[7]
Early life, family, and education
Truman was born in
John Truman was a farmer and livestock dealer. The family lived in Lamar until Harry was ten months old, when they moved to a farm near
Truman was interested in music, reading, and history, all encouraged by his mother, with whom he was very close. As president, he solicited political as well as personal advice from her.[17] Truman learned to play the piano at age seven and took lessons from Mrs. E.C. White, a well-respected teacher in Kansas City.[18] He got up at five o'clock every morning to practice the piano, which he studied more than twice a week until he was fifteen, becoming quite a skilled player.[19] Truman worked as a page at the 1900 Democratic National Convention in Kansas City;[20] his father had many friends active in the Democratic Party who helped young Harry to gain his first political position.[21]
After graduating from Independence High School in 1901,[22] Truman took classes at Spalding's Commercial College, a Kansas City business school. He studied bookkeeping, shorthand, and typing but stopped after a year.[23]
Working career
Truman was employed briefly in the mailroom of The Kansas City Star[24] before making use of his business college experience to obtain a job as a timekeeper for construction crews on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, which required him to sleep in workmen's camps along the rail lines.[25] Truman and his brother Vivian later worked as clerks at the National Bank of Commerce in Kansas City.[26]
In 1906, Truman returned to the Grandview farm, where he lived until entering the army in 1917.[27] During this period, he courted Bess Wallace. He proposed in 1911, but she turned him down. Truman later said he intended to propose again, but he wanted to have a better income than that earned by a farmer.[28] To that end, during his years on the farm and immediately after World War I, he became active in several business ventures. These included a lead and zinc mine near Commerce, Oklahoma, a company that bought land and leased the oil drilling rights to prospectors, and speculation in Kansas City real estate.[29] Truman occasionally derived some income from these enterprises, but none proved successful in the long term.[30]
Truman is the only president since
While serving as president in 1947, Truman applied for a law license.
Military service
National Guard
Due to the lack of funds for college, Truman considered attending the
World War I
When the United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, Truman rejoined Battery B, successfully recruiting new soldiers for the expanding unit, for which he was elected as their first lieutenant.[40] Before deployment to France, Truman was sent for training to Camp Doniphan, Fort Sill, near Lawton, Oklahoma, when his regiment was federalized as the 129th Field Artillery.[41] The regimental commander during its training was Robert M. Danford, who later served as the Army's Chief of Field Artillery.[42] Truman recalled that he learned more practical, useful information from Danford in six weeks than from six months of formal Army instruction, and when Truman served as an artillery instructor, he consciously patterned his approach on Danford's.[42]
Truman also ran the camp
In mid-1918, about one million soldiers of the
Truman's unit joined in a massive prearranged assault barrage on September 26, 1918, at the opening of the
In other action during the Meuse–Argonne offensive, Truman's battery provided support for George S. Patton's tank brigade,[53] and fired some of the last shots of the war on November 11, 1918. Battery D did not lose any men while under Truman's command in France. To show their appreciation for his leadership, his men presented him with a large loving cup upon their return to the United States after the war.[36]
The war was a transformative experience in which Truman manifested his leadership qualities. He had entered the service in 1917 as a family farmer who had worked in clerical jobs that did not require the ability to motivate and direct others, but during the war, he gained leadership experience and a record of success that greatly enhanced and supported his post-war political career in Missouri.[36]
Truman was brought up in the Presbyterian and
Officers' Reserve Corps
Truman was honorably discharged from the Army as a
After his election to the U.S. Senate, Truman was transferred to the General Assignments Group, a holding unit for less active officers, although he had not been consulted in advance.
Military awards and decorations
Truman was awarded a World War I Victory Medal with two battle clasps (for St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne) and a Defensive Sector Clasp. He was also the recipient of two Armed Forces Reserve Medals.[71]
Politics
Jackson County judge
After his wartime service, Truman returned to Independence, where he married Bess Wallace on June 28, 1919.[72] The couple had one child, Mary Margaret Truman.[73]
Shortly before the wedding, Truman and Jacobson opened a
With the help of the Kansas City Democratic machine led by Tom Pendergast, Truman was elected in 1922 as County Court judge of Jackson County's eastern district—Jackson County's three-judge court included judges from the western district (Kansas City), the eastern district (the county outside Kansas City), and a presiding judge elected countywide. This was an administrative rather than a judicial court, similar to county commissions in many other jurisdictions. Truman lost his 1924 reelection campaign in a Republican wave led by President Calvin Coolidge's landslide election to a full term. Two years selling automobile club memberships convinced him that a public service career was safer for a family man approaching middle age, and he planned a run for presiding judge in 1926.[79]
Truman won the job in 1926 with the support of the Pendergast machine, and he was re-elected in 1930. As presiding judge, Truman helped coordinate the Ten Year Plan, which transformed Jackson County and the Kansas City skyline with new public works projects, including an extensive series of roads and construction of a new Wight and Wight-designed County Court building. Also in 1926, he became president of the National Old Trails Road Association, and during his term he oversaw dedication of 12 Madonna of the Trail monuments to honor pioneer women.[79][80]
In 1933, Truman was named Missouri's director for the Federal Re-Employment program (part of the Civil Works Administration) at the request of Postmaster General James Farley. This was payback to Pendergast for delivering the Kansas City vote to Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. The appointment confirmed Pendergast's control over federal patronage jobs in Missouri and marked the zenith of his power. It also created a relationship between Truman and Roosevelt's aide Harry Hopkins and assured Truman's avid support for the New Deal.[81]
U.S. Senator from Missouri
After serving as a county judge, Truman wanted to run for governor or Congress,[82][83] but Pendergast rejected these ideas. Truman then thought he might serve out his career in some well-paying county sinecure;[83] circumstances changed when Pendergast reluctantly backed him as the machine's choice in the 1934 Democratic primary election for the U.S. Senate from Missouri, after Pendergast's first four choices had declined to run.[84] In the primary, Truman defeated Congressmen John J. Cochran and Jacob L. Milligan with the solid support of Jackson County, which was crucial to his candidacy. Also critical were the contacts he had made statewide in his capacity as a county official, member of the Freemasons,[c] military reservist,[d] and member of the American Legion.[e][88] In the general election, Truman defeated incumbent Republican Roscoe C. Patterson by nearly 20 percentage points in a continuing wave of pro-New Deal Democrats elected during the Great Depression.[84][89][90]
Truman assumed office with a reputation as "the Senator from Pendergast". He referred patronage decisions to Pendergast but maintained that he voted with his own conscience. He later defended the patronage decisions by saying that "by offering a little to the machine, [he] saved a lot".[90][91] In his first term, Truman spoke out against corporate greed and the dangers of Wall Street speculators and other moneyed special interests attaining too much influence in national affairs.[92] Though he served on the high-profile Appropriations and Interstate Commerce Committees, he was largely ignored by President Roosevelt and had trouble getting calls returned from the White House.[90][93]
During the
If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia, and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible although I don't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances.[96]
This quote without its last part later became a staple in Soviet and later Russian propaganda as "evidence" of an American conspiracy to destroy the country.[97][98]
Truman Committee
In late 1940, Truman traveled to various military bases. The waste and profiteering he saw led him to use his chairmanship of the Committee on Military Affairs Subcommittee on War Mobilization to start investigations into abuses while the nation prepared for war. A new special committee was set up under Truman to conduct a formal investigation; the White House supported this plan rather than weather a more hostile probe by the House of Representatives. The main mission of the committee was to expose and fight waste and corruption in the gigantic government wartime contracts.
Truman's initiative convinced Senate leaders of the necessity for the committee, which reflected his demands for honest and efficient administration and his distrust of big business and Wall Street. Truman managed the committee "with extraordinary skill" and usually achieved consensus, generating heavy media publicity that gave him a national reputation.
The committee reportedly saved as much as $15 billion (equivalent to $250 billion in 2022),[104][105][106][107] and its activities put Truman on the cover of Time magazine.[108] According to the Senate's historical minutes, in leading the committee, "Truman erased his earlier public image as an errand-runner for Kansas City politicos", and "no senator ever gained greater political benefits from chairing a special investigating committee than did Missouri's Harry S. Truman."[109]
Vice presidency (1945)
Roosevelt's advisors knew that Roosevelt might not live out a fourth term and that his vice president would very likely become the next president. Henry Wallace had served as Roosevelt's vice president for four years and was popular on the left, but he was viewed as too far to the left and too friendly to labor for some of Roosevelt's advisers. The President and several of his confidantes wanted to replace Wallace with someone more acceptable to Democratic Party leaders. Outgoing Democratic National Committee chairman Frank C. Walker, incoming chairman Hannegan, party treasurer Edwin W. Pauley, Bronx party boss Ed Flynn, Chicago Mayor Edward Joseph Kelly, and lobbyist George E. Allen all wanted to keep Wallace off the ticket.[110] Roosevelt told party leaders that he would accept either Truman or Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas.[111]
State and city party leaders strongly preferred Truman, and Roosevelt agreed.
Truman's brief vice-presidency was relatively uneventful. Truman mostly presided over the Senate and attended parties and receptions. He kept the same offices from his Senate years, mostly only using the Vice President's official office in the Capitol to greet visitors. Truman was the first vice president to have a Secret Service agent assigned to him. Truman envisioned the office as a liaison between the Senate and the president.
In one of his first acts as vice president, Truman created some controversy when he attended the disgraced Pendergast's funeral. He brushed aside the criticism, saying simply, "He was always my friend and I have always been his."[17] He had rarely discussed world affairs or domestic politics with Roosevelt; he was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top-secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb.[121] In an event that generated negative publicity for Truman, he was photographed with actress Lauren Bacall sitting atop the piano at the National Press Club as he played for soldiers.[122]
Truman had been vice president for 82 days when President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945.
Presidency (1945–1953)
At the White House, Truman replaced Roosevelt holdovers with old confidants. The White House was badly understaffed with no more than a dozen aides; they could barely keep up with the heavy workflow of a greatly expanded executive department. Truman acted as his own chief of staff on a daily basis, as well as his own liaison with Congress—a body he already knew very well. He was not well prepared to deal with the press, and never achieved the jovial familiarity of FDR. Filled with latent anger about all the setbacks in his career, he bitterly mistrusted journalists. He saw them as enemies lying in wait for his next careless miscue. Truman was a very hard worker, often to the point of exhaustion, which left him testy, easily annoyed, and on the verge of appearing unpresidential or petty. In terms of major issues, he discussed them in depth with top advisors. He mastered the details of the federal budget as well as anyone. Truman was a poor speaker reading a text. However, his visible anger made him an effective stump speaker, denouncing his enemies as his supporters hollered back at him "Give Em Hell, Harry!"[127]
Truman surrounded himself with his old friends and appointed several to high positions that seemed well beyond their competence, including his two secretaries of the treasury,
... to many in the general public, gambling and bourbon swilling, however low-key, were not quite presidential. Neither was the intemperant "give 'em hell" campaign style nor the occasional profane phrase uttered in public. Poker exemplified a larger problem: the tension between his attempts at an image of leadership necessarily a cut above the ordinary and an informality that at times appeared to verge on crudeness.[130][131]
First term (1945–1949)
Assuming office
On his first full day, Truman told reporters: "Boys, if you ever pray, pray for me now. I don't know if you fellas ever had a load of hay fall on you, but when they told me what happened yesterday, I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me."[132]
Truman asked all the members of Roosevelt's cabinet to remain in place, but he soon replaced almost all of them, especially with old friends from his Senate days.[133]
Dropping atomic bombs on Japan
Truman benefited from a honeymoon period from the success in defeating Nazi Germany in Europe and the nation celebrated
Although Truman was told briefly on the afternoon of April 12 that he had a new, highly destructive weapon, it was not until April 25 that
We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah and his fabulous Ark.
Truman journeyed to Berlin for the Potsdam Conference with Joseph Stalin and the British leader Winston Churchill. He was there when he learned the Trinity test—the first atomic bomb—on July 16 had been successful. He hinted to Stalin that he was about to use a new kind of weapon against the Japanese. Though this was the first time the Soviets had been officially given information about the atomic bomb, Stalin was already aware of the bomb project—having learned about it through atomic espionage long before Truman did.[138][139][140]
In August, the Japanese government refused surrender demands as specifically outlined in the Potsdam Declaration. With the invasion of Japan imminent, Truman approved the schedule for dropping the two available bombs. Truman maintained the position that attacking Japan with atomic bombs saved many lives on both sides; a military estimate for the invasion of Japan submitted to Truman by Herbert Hoover indicated that an invasion could take at least a year and result in 500,000 to 1,000,000 Allied casualties.[141] A study done for the staff of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson by William Shockley estimated that invading Japan would cost 1.7–4 million American casualties, including 400,000–800,000 fatalities, and five to ten million Japanese fatalities if Japanese civilians participated in the defense of Japan.[142] The U.S. Army Service Forces estimated in their document "Redeployment of the United States Army after the Defeat of Germany," that between June 1945 and December 1946 the Army would be required to furnish replacements for 43,000 dead and evacuated wounded every month during this period.[143] From analysis of the replacement schedule and projected strengths in overseas theaters, it suggested that Army losses alone in those categories, excluding the Navy and Marine Corps, would be approximately 863,000 through the first part of 1947, of whom 267,000 would be killed or missing.[144]
Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, and Nagasaki three days later, leaving 105,000 dead.[145] The Soviet Union declared war on Japan on August 9 and invaded Manchuria. Japan agreed to surrender the following day.[146][147]
Supporters[f] of Truman's decision argue that, given the tenacious Japanese defense of the outlying islands, the bombings saved hundreds of thousands of lives of Allied prisoners, Japanese civilians, and combatants on both sides that would have been lost in an invasion of Japan. Some modern criticism has argued that the use of nuclear weapons was unnecessary, given that conventional attacks or a demonstrative bombing of an uninhabited area might have forced Japan's surrender, and therefore assert that the attack constituted a crime of war.[148][149][150] In 1948 Truman defended his decision to use atomic bombs:
As President of the United States, I had the fateful responsibility of deciding whether or not to use this weapon for the first time. It was the hardest decision I ever had to make. But the President cannot duck hard problems—he cannot pass the buck. I made the decision after discussions with the ablest men in our Government, and after long and prayerful consideration. I decided that the bomb should be used to end the war quickly and save countless lives—Japanese as well as American.[151]
Truman continued to strongly defend himself in his memoirs in 1955–1956, stating many lives could have been lost had the United States invaded mainland Japan without the atomic bombs. In 1963, he stood by his decision, telling a journalist "it was done to save 125,000 youngsters on the U.S. side and 125,000 on the Japanese side from getting killed and that is what it did. It probably also saved a half million youngsters on both sides from being maimed for life."[152]
Labor unions, strikes and economic issues
The end of World War II was followed by an uneasy transition from war to a peacetime economy. The costs of the war effort had been enormous, and Truman was intent on diminishing military services as quickly as possible to curtail the government's military expenditures. The effect of demobilization on the economy was unknown, proposals were met with skepticism and resistance, and fears existed that the nation would slide back into depression. In Roosevelt's final years, Congress began to reassert legislative power and Truman faced a congressional body where Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed a powerful "conservative coalition" voting bloc. The New Deal had greatly strengthened labor unions and they formed a major base of support for Truman's Democratic Party. The Republicans, working with big business, made it their highest priority to weaken those unions.[153] The unions had been promoted by the government during the war and tried to make their gains permanent through large-scale strikes in major industries. Meanwhile, price controls were slowly ending, and inflation was soaring.[154] Truman's response to the widespread dissatisfaction was generally seen as ineffective.[154]
When a national rail strike threatened in May 1946, Truman seized the railroads in an attempt to contain the issue, but two key railway unions struck anyway. The entire national railroad system was shut down, immobilizing 24,000 freight trains and 175,000 passenger trains a day.[155] For two days, public anger mounted. His staff prepared a speech that Truman read to Congress calling for a new law, whereby railroad strikers would be drafted into the army. As he concluded his address, he was handed a note that the strike had been settled on presidential terms; nevertheless, a few hours later, the House voted to draft the strikers. The bill died in the Senate.[156][157]
Approval rating falls; Republicans win Congress in 1946
The president's approval rating dropped from 82 percent in the polls in January 1946 to 52 percent by June.
Truman cooperated closely with the Republican leaders on foreign policy but fought them bitterly on domestic issues. The power of the labor unions was significantly curtailed by the
Proposes "Fair Deal" liberalism
As he readied for the 1948 election, Truman made clear his identity as a Democrat in the New Deal tradition, advocating for national health insurance,[162] and repeal of the Taft–Hartley Act. He broke with the New Deal by initiating an aggressive civil rights program which he termed a moral priority. His economic and social vision constituted a broad legislative agenda that came to be called the "Fair Deal."[163] Truman's proposals were not well received by Congress, even with renewed Democratic majorities in Congress after 1948. The Solid South rejected civil rights as those states still enforced segregation. Only one of the major Fair Deal bills, the Housing Act of 1949, was ever enacted.[164][165] Many of the New Deal programs that persisted during Truman's presidency have since received minor improvements and extensions.[166]
Marshall Plan, Cold War, and China
As a
Although he had little personal expertise on foreign matters, Truman listened closely to his top advisors, especially
To get Congress to spend the vast sums necessary to restart the moribund European economy, Truman used an ideological argument, arguing that communism flourishes in economically deprived areas.[173] As part of the U.S. Cold War strategy, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947 and reorganized military forces by merging the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment (later the Department of Defense) and creating the U.S. Air Force. The act also created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Council.[174] On November 4, 1952, Truman authorized the official, though at the time, confidential creation of the National Security Agency (NSA).[175][176]
Truman did not know what to do about China, where the Nationalists and Communists were fighting a large-scale civil war. The Nationalists had been major wartime allies and had large-scale popular support in the United States, along with a powerful lobby. General George Marshall spent most of 1946 in China trying to negotiate a compromise but failed. He convinced Truman the Nationalists would never win on their own and a very large-scale U.S. intervention to stop the Communists would significantly weaken U.S. opposition to the Soviets in Europe. By 1949, the Communists under Mao Zedong had won the civil war, the United States had a new enemy in Asia, and Truman came under fire from conservatives for "losing" China.[177]
Berlin airlift
On June 24, 1948, the Soviet Union blocked access to the three
On June 25, the Allies initiated the
Recognition of Israel
Truman had long taken an interest in the history of the Middle East and was sympathetic to Jews who sought to re-establish their ancient homeland in Mandatory Palestine. As a senator, he announced support for Zionism; in 1943 he called for a homeland for those Jews who survived the Nazi regime. However, State Department officials were reluctant to offend the Arabs, who were opposed to the establishment of a Jewish state in the large region long populated and dominated culturally by Arabs. Secretary of Defense James Forrestal warned Truman of the importance of Saudi Arabian oil in another war; Truman replied he would decide his policy on the basis of justice, not oil.[179] U.S. diplomats with experience in the region were opposed, but Truman told them he had few Arabs among his constituents.[180]
Palestine was secondary to the goal of protecting the "Northern Tier" of Greece, Turkey, and Iran from communism, as promised by the Truman Doctrine.[181] Weary of both the convoluted politics of the Middle East and pressure by Jewish leaders, Truman was undecided on his policy and skeptical about how the Jewish "underdogs" would handle power.[182][183] He later cited as decisive in his recognition of the Jewish state the advice of his former business partner, Eddie Jacobson, a non-religious Jew whom Truman absolutely trusted.[180]
Truman decided to recognize Israel over the objections of Secretary of State
Calls for Civil Rights
Under his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, the
It is my deep conviction that we have reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens … it is more important today than ever before to ensure that all Americans enjoy these rights. … [And] When I say all Americans, I mean all Americans … Our immediate task is to remove the last remnants of the barriers which stand between millions of our citizens and their birthright. There is no justifiable reason for discrimination because of ancestry, or religion, or race, or color. We must not tolerate such limitations on the freedom of any of our people and on their enjoyment of basic rights which every citizen in a truly democratic society must possess. Every man should have the right to a decent home, the right to an education, the right to adequate medical care, the right to a worthwhile job, the right to an equal share in making the public decisions through the ballot, and the right to a fair trial in a fair court. We must ensure that these rights – on equal terms – are enjoyed by every citizen. To these principles I pledge my full and continued support. Many of our people still suffer the indignity of insult, the harrowing fear of intimidation, and, I regret to say, the threat of physical injury and mob violence. Prejudice and intolerance in which these evils are rooted still exist. The conscience of our nation, and the legal machinery which enforces it, have not yet secured to each citizen full freedom from fear.
In February 1948, Truman delivered a formal message to Congress requesting adoption of his 10-point program to secure civil rights, including anti-lynching, voter rights, and elimination of segregation. "No political act since the Compromise of 1877," argued biographer Taylor Branch, "so profoundly influenced race relations; in a sense it was a repeal of 1877."[190]
1948 election
The 1948 presidential election is remembered for Truman's stunning come-from-behind victory.[191] In the spring of 1948, Truman's public approval rating stood at 36 percent,[192] and the president was nearly universally regarded as incapable of winning the general election. At the 1948 Democratic National Convention, Truman attempted to unify the party with a vague civil rights plank in the party platform. His intention was to assuage the internal conflicts between the northern and southern wings of his party. Events overtook his efforts. A sharp address given by Mayor Hubert Humphrey of Minneapolis—as well as the local political interests of a number of urban bosses—convinced the convention to adopt a stronger civil rights plank, which Truman approved wholeheartedly.[193] Truman delivered an aggressive acceptance speech attacking the 80th Congress, which Truman called the "Do Nothing Congress,"[154] and promising to win the election and "make these Republicans like it."[194]
Republicans approve of the American farmer, but they are willing to help him go broke. They stand four-square for the American home—but not for housing. They are strong for labor—but they are stronger for restricting labor's rights. They favor minimum wage—the smaller the minimum wage the better. They endorse educational opportunity for all—but they won't spend money for teachers or for schools. They think modern medical care and hospitals are fine—for people who can afford them ... They think American standard of living is a fine thing—so long as it doesn't spread to all the people. And they admire the Government of the United States so much that they would like to buy it.
Within two weeks of the 1948 convention Truman issued
Truman's political advisors described the political scene as "one unholy, confusing cacophony." They told Truman to speak directly to the people, in a personal way.[203] Campaign manager William J. Bray said Truman took this advice, and spoke personally and passionately, sometimes even setting aside his notes to talk to Americans "of everything that is in my heart and soul."[204]
The campaign was a 21,928-mile (35,290 km) presidential odyssey.
The large crowds at Truman's whistle-stop events were an important sign of a change in momentum in the campaign, but this shift went virtually unnoticed by the national press corps. It continued reporting Republican
In the end, Truman held his progressive Midwestern base, won most of the Southern states despite the civil rights plank, and squeaked through with narrow victories in a few critical states, notably Ohio, California, and Illinois. The final tally showed the president had secured 303 electoral votes, Dewey 189, and Thurmond only 39. Henry Wallace got none. The defining image of the campaign came after Election Day, when an ecstatic Truman held aloft the erroneous front page of the Chicago Tribune with a huge headline proclaiming "Dewey Defeats Truman."[210]
Full elected term (1949–1953)
Truman's second inauguration was the first ever televised nationally.[211]
Hydrogen bomb decision
The Soviet Union's
Korean War
On June 25, 1950, the
Truman promptly urged the United Nations to intervene; it did, authorizing troops under the UN flag led by U.S. General
However, on July 3, 1950, Truman did give Senate Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas a draft resolution titled "Joint Resolution Expressing Approval of the Action Taken in Korea". Lucas stated Congress supported the use of force, the formal resolution would pass but was unnecessary, and the consensus in Congress was to acquiesce. Truman responded he did not want "to appear to be trying to get around Congress and use extra-Constitutional powers," and added that it was "up to Congress whether such a resolution should be introduced."[223]
By August 1950, U.S. troops pouring into South Korea under UN auspices were able to stabilize the situation.[224] Responding to criticism over readiness, Truman fired his secretary of defense, Louis A. Johnson, replacing him with the retired General Marshall. With UN approval, Truman decided on a "rollback" policy—liberation of North Korea.[225] UN forces led by General Douglas MacArthur led the counterattack, scoring a stunning surprise victory with an amphibious landing at the Battle of Inchon that nearly trapped the invaders. UN forces marched north, toward the Yalu River boundary with China, with the goal of reuniting Korea under UN auspices.[226]
China surprised the UN forces with a large-scale invasion in November. The UN forces were forced back to below the
I fired him [MacArthur] because he wouldn't respect the authority of the President ... I didn't fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch, although he was, but that's not against the law for generals. If it was, half to three-quarters of them would be in jail.[229]
—Truman to biographer Merle Miller, 1972, posthumously quoted in Time magazine, 1973
The
Truman and his generals considered the use of nuclear weapons against the Chinese army, but ultimately chose not to escalate the war to a nuclear level.
Worldwide defense
The escalation of the Cold War was highlighted by Truman's approval of NSC 68, a secret statement of foreign policy. It called for tripling the defense budget, and the globalization and militarization of containment policy whereby the United States and its NATO allies would respond militarily to actual Soviet expansion. The document was drafted by Paul Nitze, who consulted State and Defense officials and was formally approved by President Truman as the official national strategy after the war began in Korea. It called for partial mobilization of the U.S. economy to build armaments faster than the Soviets. The plan called for strengthening Europe, weakening the Soviet Union, and building up the United States both militarily and economically.[236]
Truman was a strong supporter of the
General Marshall was Truman's principal adviser on foreign policy matters, influencing such decisions as the U.S. choice against offering direct military aid to Chiang Kai-shek and his nationalist Chinese forces in the Chinese Civil War against their communist opponents. Marshall's opinion was contrary to the counsel of almost all of Truman's other advisers; Marshall thought propping up Chiang's forces would drain U.S. resources necessary for Europe to deter the Soviets.[239] When the communists took control of the mainland, establishing the People's Republic of China and driving the nationalists to Taiwan, Truman would have been willing to maintain some relationship between the United States and the new government, but Mao was unwilling.[240] Truman announced on January 5, 1950, that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC.[241]
On June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of fighting in Korea, Truman ordered the U.S. Navy's Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent further conflict between the communist government on the China mainland and the Republic of China (ROC) in Taiwan.[242][243]
Truman usually worked well with his top staff – the exceptions were Israel in 1948 and Spain in 1945–1950. Truman was a very strong opponent of Francisco Franco, the right-wing dictator of Spain. He withdrew the American ambassador (but diplomatic relations were not formally broken), kept Spain out of the UN, and rejected any Marshall Plan financial aid to Spain. However, as the Cold War escalated, support for Spain was strong in Congress, the Pentagon, the business community and other influential elements especially Catholics and cotton growers.
Liberal opposition to Spain had faded after the Wallace element broke with the Democratic Party in 1948; the CIO became passive on the issue. As Secretary of State Acheson increased his pressure on Truman, the president stood alone in his administration as his own top appointees wanted to normalize relations. When China entered the Korean War and pushed American forces back, the argument for allies became irresistible. Admitting he was "overruled and worn down," Truman relented and sent an ambassador and made loans available.[244]
Soviet espionage and McCarthyism
In August 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former spy for the Soviets and a senior editor at Time magazine, testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). He said an underground communist network had worked inside the U.S. government during the 1930s, of which Chambers had been a member, along with Alger Hiss, until recently a senior State Department official. Chambers did not allege any spying during the Truman presidency. Although Hiss denied the allegations, he was convicted in January 1950 for perjury for denials under oath.
The Soviet Union's success in exploding an atomic weapon in 1949 and the fall of the nationalist Chinese the same year led many Americans to conclude subversion by Soviet spies was responsible and to demand that communists be rooted out from the government and other places of influence.
Charges that Soviet agents had infiltrated the government were believed by 78 percent of the people in 1946 and became a major campaign issue for Eisenhower in 1952.[253] Truman was reluctant to take a more radical stance, because he felt it could threaten civil liberties and add to a potential hysteria. At the same time, he felt political pressure to indicate a strong national security.[254] It is unclear to what extent President Truman was briefed of the Venona intercepts, which discovered widespread evidence of Soviet espionage on the atom bomb project and afterward.[255][256] Truman continued his own loyalty program for some time while believing the issue of communist espionage was overstated.[255] In 1949, Truman described American communist leaders, whom his administration was prosecuting, as "traitors".[254] Truman would later state in private conversations with friends that his creation of a loyalty program had been a "terrible" mistake.[257]
In 1950, Truman vetoed the
Blair House and assassination attempt
In 1948, Truman ordered an addition to the exterior of the White House: a second-floor balcony in the south portico, which came to be known as the Truman Balcony. The addition was unpopular. Some said it spoiled the appearance of the south facade, but it gave the First Family more living space.[263][264] [265] Meanwhile, structural deterioration and a near-imminent collapse of the White House led to a comprehensive dismantling and rebuilding of the building's interior from 1949 to 1952. Architectural and engineering investigations during 1948 deemed it unsafe for occupancy. Truman, his family, and the entire residence staff were relocated across the street into Blair House during the renovations. As the newer West Wing, including the Oval Office, remained open, Truman walked to and from his work across the street each morning and afternoon.[266]
External videos | |
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Newsreel scenes in English of the assassination attempt on U.S. President Harry S. Truman |
On November 1, 1950,
Steel and coal strikes
In response to a labor/management impasse arising from bitter disagreements over wage and price controls, Truman instructed his Secretary of Commerce, Charles W. Sawyer, to take control of a number of the nation's steel mills in April 1952. Truman cited his authority as commander in chief and the need to maintain an uninterrupted supply of steel for munitions for the war in Korea. The Supreme Court found Truman's actions unconstitutional, however, and reversed the order in a major separation-of-powers decision, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952). The 6–3 decision, which held that Truman's assertion of authority was too vague and was not rooted in any legislative action by Congress, was delivered by a court composed entirely of justices appointed by either Truman or Roosevelt. The high court's reversal of Truman's order was one of the notable defeats of his presidency.[268]
Scandals and controversies
In 1950, the Senate, led by Estes Kefauver, investigated numerous charges of corruption among senior administration officials, some of whom received fur coats and deep freezers in exchange for favors. A large number of employees of the Internal Revenue Bureau (today the IRS) were accepting bribes; 166 employees either resigned or were fired in 1950,[269] with many soon facing indictment. When Attorney General J. Howard McGrath fired the special prosecutor in early 1952 for being too zealous, Truman fired McGrath.[270] Truman submitted a reorganization plan to reform the IRB; Congress passed it, but corruption was a major issue in the 1952 presidential election.[271][272]
On December 6, 1950, Washington Post music critic Paul Hume wrote a critical review of a concert by the president's daughter Margaret Truman:
Miss Truman is a unique American phenomenon with a pleasant voice of little size and fair quality ... [she] cannot sing very well ... is flat a good deal of the time—more last night than at any time we have heard her in past years ... has not improved in the years we have heard her ... [and] still cannot sing with anything approaching professional finish.[273]
Truman wrote a scathing response:
I've just read your lousy review of Margaret's concert. I've come to the conclusion that you are an 'eight ulcer man on four ulcer pay.' It seems to me that you are a frustrated old man who wishes he could have been successful. When you write such poppy-cock as was in the back section of the paper you work for it shows conclusively that you're off the beam and at least four of your ulcers are at work. Some day I hope to meet you. When that happens you'll need a new nose, a lot of beefsteak for black eyes, and perhaps a supporter below! Pegler, a gutter snipe, is a gentleman alongside you. I hope you'll accept that statement as a worse insult than a reflection on your ancestry.[273]
Truman was criticized by many for the letter. However, he pointed out that he wrote it as a loving father and not as the president.[274][275][276]
In 1951, William M. Boyle, Truman's longtime friend and chairman of the Democratic National Committee, was forced to resign after being charged with financial corruption.[277]
Civil rights
A 1947 report by the Truman administration titled To Secure These Rights presented a detailed ten-point agenda of civil rights reforms. Speaking about this report, international developments have to be taken into account, for with the
In February 1948, the president submitted a civil rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating several federal offices devoted to issues such as
Tales of the abuse, violence, and persecution suffered by many African American veterans upon their return from World War II infuriated Truman and were major factors in his decision to issue
Executive Order 9980, also in 1948, made it illegal to discriminate against persons applying for civil service positions based on race. A third, in 1951, established the Committee on Government Contract Compliance, which ensured defense contractors did not discriminate because of race.[285][286]
Administration and cabinet
Foreign policy
From 1947 until 1989, world affairs were dominated by the Cold War, in which the U.S. and its allies faced the Soviet Union and its allies. There was no large-scale fighting but instead several local civil wars as well as the ever-present threat of a catastrophic nuclear war.[287][288]
Unlike Roosevelt, Truman distrusted Stalin and the Soviet Union, and did not have FDR's faith in the UN to soften major tensions. Nevertheless, he cooperated in terms of dividing control over Germany. Soviet efforts to use its army to control politics in Eastern Europe and Iran angered Washington. The final break came in 1947 when the Labour government in London could no longer afford to help Greece fight communism and asked Washington to assume responsibility for suppressing the Communist uprising there.[289][290] The result was the Truman Doctrine of 1947–48 which made it national policy to contain Communist expansion.[291]
Truman was supported by the great majority of Democrats, after he forced out the Henry Wallace faction that wanted good terms with Moscow.[292] Truman's policy had the strong support of most Republicans, who led by Senator Arthur Vandenberg overcame the isolationist Republicans led by Senator Robert A. Taft.[293]
In 1948, Truman signed the
The containment policy was developed by State Department official George Kennan in 1947.[298] Kennan characterized the Soviet Union as an aggressive, anti-Western power that necessitated containment, a characterization which would shape US foreign policy for decades to come. The idea of containment was to match Soviet aggression with force wherever it occurred while not using nuclear weapons. The policy of containment created a bipolar, zero-sum world where the ideological conflicts between the Soviet Union and the United States dominated geopolitics. Due to the antagonism on both sides and each countries' search for security, a tense worldwide contest developed between the two states as the two nations' governments vied for global supremacy militarily, culturally, and politically.[299]
The Cold War was characterized by a lack of global hot wars Instead there were proxy wars, fought by client states and proxies of the United States and Soviet Union. The most important was Korean War (1950–1953), a stalemate that drained away Truman's base of support. Truman made five international trips during his presidency.[300]
1952 election
In 1951, the United States ratified the 22nd Amendment, making a president ineligible for election to a third term or for election to a second full term after serving more than two remaining years of a term of a previously elected president. The latter clause did not apply to Truman's situation in 1952 because of a grandfather clause exempting the incumbent president.[301]
Therefore, he seriously considered running for another term in 1952 and left his name on the ballot in the New Hampshire primary. However, all his close advisors, pointing to his age, his failing abilities, and his poor showing in the polls, talked him out of it.[302] At the time of the 1952 New Hampshire primary, no candidate had won Truman's backing. His first choice, Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, had declined to run; Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson had also turned Truman down, Vice President Barkley was considered too old,[303][304] and Truman distrusted and disliked Senator Kefauver, who had made a name for himself by his investigations of the Truman administration scandals.
Truman let his name be entered in the
Eisenhower gained the Republican nomination, with Senator Nixon as his running mate, and campaigned against what he denounced as Truman's failures: "Korea, communism and corruption". He pledged to clean up the "mess in Washington," and promised to "go to Korea."[303][304] Eisenhower defeated Stevenson decisively in the general election, ending 20 years of Democratic presidents. While Truman and Eisenhower had previously been on good terms, Truman felt annoyed that Eisenhower did not denounce Joseph McCarthy during the campaign.[306] Similarly, Eisenhower was outraged when Truman accused the former general of disregarding "sinister forces ... Anti-Semitism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-foreignism" within the Republican Party.[307]
Post-presidency (1953–1972)
Financial situation
Before being elected as Jackson County judge, Truman had earned little money, and was in debt from the failure of his haberdashery. His election as senator in 1934 carried with it a salary of $10,000 (about $210,000 in 2022), high for the time, but the need to maintain two homes, with one in expensive Washington, Margaret Truman's college expenses, and contributions to the support of needy relatives, left the Trumans little extra money. He likely had around $7,500 in cash and government bonds when nominated for vice president.[308]
His finances were transformed by his accession to the presidency, which carried with it a salary of $75,000 ($1.24 million in 2022), which was increased to $100,000 in 1949 (about $1.25 million in 2022). This was more than any Major League Baseball star except Joe DiMaggio, who also earned $100,000 in his final two seasons (1950 and 1951). Beginning in 1949, the president was also granted a $50,000 expense allowance ($589,000 in 2022), which was initially tax-free, and did not have to be accounted for. Although the allowance became taxable later in his presidency, Truman never reported it on his tax return, and converted some of the funds to cash he kept in the White House safe and later in a safe deposit box in Kansas City.[308]
Upon leaving the presidency, Truman returned to Independence, Missouri, to live at the Wallace home he and Bess had shared for years with her mother.[309] In a biography that contributed greatly to the myth that Truman was near penury after departing the White House,[308] David McCullough stated that the Trumans had little alternative than to return to Independence, for his only income was his army pension of $112.56 per month (equivalent to $1,231 in 2022), and he had only been able to save a modest amount from his salary as president.[310] In February 1953, Truman signed a book deal for his memoirs, and in a draft will dated December of that year listed land worth $250,000, savings bonds of the same amount, and cash of $150,000.[308] He wrote, "Bonds, land, and cash all come from savings of presidential salary and free expense account. It should keep you and Margaret comfortably."[308]
The writing of the memoirs was a struggle for Truman, and he went through a dozen collaborators during the project,[311] not all of whom served him well,[312] but he remained heavily involved in the result.[313] For the memoirs, Truman received a payment of $670,000 (equivalent to $7,319,230 in 2022).[314] The memoirs were a commercial and critical success.[315][316] They were published in two volumes: Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Year of Decisions (1955) and Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Years of Trial and Hope (1956).[317][318]
Former members of Congress and the federal courts received a federal retirement package; President Truman himself ensured that former servants of the executive branch of government received similar support. In 1953, however, there was no such benefit package for former presidents, and Congressional pensions were not approved until 1946, after Truman had left the Senate, so he received no pension for his Senate service.[319] Truman, behind the scenes, lobbied for a pension, writing to congressional leaders that he had been near penury but for the sale of family farmlands, and in February 1958, in the first televised interview of a former US president that aired on CBS, Truman claimed that "If I hadn't inherited some property that finally paid things through, I'd be on relief right now."[308] That year, Congress passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 (equivalent to $253,576 in 2022) yearly pension to each former president, and it is likely that Truman's claim to be in difficult financial straits played a role in the law's enactment.[320] The only other living former president at the time, Herbert Hoover, also took the pension, even though he did not need the money; reportedly, he did so to avoid embarrassing Truman.[321]
Truman's net worth improved further in 1958 when he and his siblings sold most of the family farm to a Kansas City real estate developer.[322] When he was serving as a county judge, Truman borrowed $31,000 (equivalent to $339,072 in 2022) by mortgaging the farm to the county school fund, which was legal at the time.[322] When Republicans controlled the court in 1940, they foreclosed in an effort to embarrass Truman politically, and his mother and sister Mary Jane had to vacate the home.[322] In 1945, Truman organized a syndicate of supporters who purchased the farm with the understanding that they would sell it back to the Trumans.[322] Harry and Vivian Truman purchased 87 acres in 1945, and Truman purchased another portion in 1946.[322] In January 1959, Truman calculated his net worth as $1,046,788.86 ($10.71 million in 2022), including a share in the Los Angeles Rams football team. Nevertheless, the Trumans always lived modestly in Independence, and when Bess Truman died in 1982, almost a decade after her husband, the house was found to be in poor condition due to deferred maintenance.[308]
Bess Truman's personal papers were made public in 2009,[323] including financial records and tax returns. The myth that Truman had been in straitened circumstances after his presidency was slow to dissipate; Paul Campos wrote in 2021, "The current, 20,000-plus-word Wikipedia biography of Truman goes so far as to assert that, because his earlier business ventures had failed, Truman left the White House with 'no personal savings.' Every aspect of this narrative is false."[308][g]
Truman Library and academic positions
Truman's predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had organized his own presidential library, but legislation to enable future presidents to do something similar had not been enacted. Truman worked to garner private donations to build a presidential library, which he donated to the federal government to maintain and operate—a practice adopted by his successors.[324]
He testified before Congress to have money appropriated to have presidential papers copied and organized. He was proud of the bill's passage in 1957. Max Skidmore, in his book on the life of former presidents, wrote that Truman was a well-read man, especially in history. Skidmore added that the presidential papers legislation and the founding of his library "was the culmination of his interest in history. Together they constitute an enormous contribution to the United States—one of the greatest of any former president."[325]
Truman taught occasional courses at universities, including
Politics
Truman supported Adlai Stevenson's second bid for the White House in 1956, although he had initially favored Democratic governor W. Averell Harriman of New York.[328] He continued to campaign for Democratic senatorial candidates for many years.[329]
In 1960 Truman gave a public statement announcing he would not attend the Democratic Convention that year, citing concerns about the way that the supporters of John F. Kennedy had gained control of the nominating process, and called on Kennedy to forgo the nomination for that year.[330] Kennedy responded with a press conference where he bluntly rebuffed Truman's advice.[331]
Despite his supportive stance on civil rights during his presidency, Truman expressed criticism of the civil rights movement during the 1960s. In 1960, he stated that he believed the sit-in movement to be part of a Soviet plot.[332] Truman's statement garnered a response from Martin Luther King Jr., who wrote a letter to the former president stating that he was "baffled" by the accusation, and demanded a public apology.[333] Truman would later criticize King following the Selma march in 1965, believing the protest to be "silly" and claiming that it "can't accomplish a darn thing except to attract attention."[334] In 1963, Truman voiced his opposition to interracial marriage, believing that daughters of white people would never love someone of an opposite color.[335][336]
Upon turning 80 in 1964, Truman was feted in Washington, and addressed the Senate, availing himself of a new rule that allowed former presidents to be granted
Medicare
After a fall in his home in late 1964, Truman's physical condition declined. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Medicare bill at the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum and gave the first two Medicare cards to Truman and his wife Bess to honor the former president's fight for government health care while in office.[329]
Death
On December 5, 1972, Truman was admitted to Kansas City's Research Hospital and Medical Center with pneumonia. He developed multiple organ failure, fell into a coma, and died at 7:50 a.m. on December 26, at the age of 88.[338][309]
Bess Truman opted for a simple private service at the library rather than a state funeral in Washington. A week after the funeral, foreign dignitaries and Washington officials attended a memorial service at Washington National Cathedral.[339]
Bess Truman died in 1982 and was buried next to her husband at the
Tributes and legacy
Legacy
When he left office in 1953, Truman was one of the most unpopular chief executives in history. His job approval rating of 22% in the
Truman had his latter-day critics as well. After a review of information available to Truman about the presence of espionage activities in the U.S. government, Democratic Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan concluded that Truman was "almost willfully obtuse" concerning the danger of American communism.[344] In 2010, historian Alonzo Hamby concluded that "Harry Truman remains a controversial president."[345] However, Truman has fared well in polls ranking the presidents, consistently being listed in the top ten;[346] this includes a 2022 poll by the Siena College Research Institute, which placed him in seventh.[347]
Harry Truman himself gave a strong and far-from-incorrect impression of being a tough, concerned and direct leader. He was occasionally vulgar, often partisan, and usually nationalistic ... On his own terms, Truman can be seen as having prevented the coming of a third world war and having preserved from Communist oppression much of what he called the free world. Yet clearly he largely failed to achieve his Wilsonian aim of securing perpetual peace, making the world safe for democracy, and advancing opportunities for individual development internationally.[349]
Sites and honors
In 1956, Truman traveled to Europe with his wife. In Britain, he received an honorary degree in Civic Law from
In 1975, the
In 1983 the Harry S. Truman State Office Building in
In 2004, the President Harry S. Truman Fellowship in National Security Science and Engineering was created as a distinguished postdoctoral three-year appointment at
Despite Truman's attempt to curtail the naval carrier arm, which led to the 1949
In 1991, Truman was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians, and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol. In 2006, Thomas Daniel, grandson of the Trumans, accepted a star on the Missouri Walk of Fame to honor his late grandfather. In 2007, John Truman, a nephew, accepted a star for Bess Truman. The Walk of Fame is in Marshfield, Missouri, a city Truman visited in 1948.[364]
In 2004, international relations scholar Rachel Kleinfeld and former U.S. Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Middle East Policy Matthew Spence founded the Truman National Security Project. In 2013, they launched the Truman Center for National Policy. Both organizations were named after Truman.[365]
A statue of Harry S. Truman was installed in the U.S. Capitol, in Washington, D.C., on September 29, 2022, as part of the National Statuary Hall Collection.[366]
On the 70th anniversary of the Korean War armistice in 2023, South Korea erected a statue of Truman in Dabu-dong,
Other sites associated with Truman include:
- Harry S. Truman National Historic Site includes the Wallace House at 219 N. Delaware in Independence and the family farmhouse at Grandview, Missouri (Truman sold most of the farm for Kansas City suburban development including the Truman Corners Shopping Center).
- Harry S. Truman Birthplace State Historic Site is the house where Truman was born and spent 11 months in Lamar, Missouri.[368]
- Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum – The Presidential library in Independence
- Key West, Florida
See also
- Electoral history of Harry S. Truman
- Truman National Security Project
- Truman (film)
- Truman Day
- List of members of the American Legion
- List of presidents of the United States
- "Harry Truman", a 1975 hit song by the band Chicago
Notes
- ^ Truman was vice president under Franklin D. Roosevelt and became president upon Roosevelt's death on April 12, 1945. As this was prior to the adoption of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next election and inauguration.
- ^ a b Truman was given the initial S as a middle name. There is disagreement over whether the period after the S should be included or omitted, or if both forms are equally valid. Truman's own archived correspondence shows that he regularly used the period when writing his name.[6]
- ^ Truman hald several leadership positions at the local and state level and in 1940 was elected to a one year term as Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Missouri.[85] In October 1945 he received the 33rd degree of the Scottish Rite.[85]
- ^ Truman was a founder of the Reserve Officers Association and organized Missouri's first chapter, Chapter 1.[86]
- ^ Truman organized the first American Legion post in Missouri, aided in organizing several others, and attended numerous annual conventions as a delegate.[87]
- ^ For example, see Fussell, Paul (1988). "Thank God for the Atomic Bomb". Thank God for the Atomic Bomb and Other Essays. New York Summit Books.
- ^ That claim was removed from this article on August 1, 2021, with this edit.
References
- ^ a b Ferrell 1994, p. 108.
- ^ "County Judges 1923–1972". County History: County Judges. Kansas City, Missouri: Jackson County, Missouri. 2018. Archived from the original on September 20, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
- ^ a b "County Judges 1923–1972".
- ^ a b Ferrell 1994, p. 99.
- ^ "County Judges 1826–1922". County History: County Judges. Kansas City, Missouri: Jackson County, Missouri. 2018. Archived from the original on September 30, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
- ^ "Use of the Period After the 'S' in Harry S. Truman's Name". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved April 13, 2021.
- ^ Hamby, Alonzo L. (October 4, 2016). "Harry S. Truman: Life in Brief". Miller Center of Public Affairs. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
- ^ McCullough 1992, p. 37.
- ^ McCullough 1992, pp. 27, 37.
- ^ Niel Johnson; Verna Gail Johnson (1999). "Rooted in History: The Genealogy of Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library – Genealogy. Retrieved May 6, 2018..
- ^ "Ulster-Scots and the United States Presidents" (PDF). Ulster Scots Agency. Retrieved July 12, 2010.
- ^ Truman Library, Birth 2012.
- ^ McCullough 1992, pp. 37, 77, 1112.
- ISBN 978-1-935503-80-4.
- ^ Schultz, Joseph P. (1982). Mid-America's Promise: A Profile of Kansas City Jewry. Jewish Community Foundation of Greater Kansas City. p. 33.
- ^ "San Francisco Jewish Bulletin, Volume 129". Jewish Community Publications. 1979. p. v.
- ^ a b c Oshinsky 2004, pp. 365–380.
- ^ McCullough 1992, p. 52.
- ^ McCullough 1992, p. 38.
- ^ Ferrell 1994, p. 87.
- ^ Truman Library & 2012aa.
- ^ Anon (2021). "Columbian School, Ott School & Independence High School". trumanlibrary.gov. Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum.
"Readers of good books are preparing themselves for leadership. Not all readers become leaders. But all leaders must be readers." (Post Presidential Papers, Desk File.)
- ^ Ferrell 1994, pp. 25–26.
- ^ "Harry S. Truman: Kansas City Star Building". Harry S. Truman Library. Independence, MO: National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved July 18, 2021.
- ^ Truman Library, Job 2012.
- ^ "Commerce Bancshares, Inc. Records: Dates: 1903–1999". Harry S. Truman Library. Independence, MO: National Archives and Records Administration. 2002. Retrieved July 18, 2021.
- ^ McCullough 1992, pp. 67, 99.
- ^ McCullough 1992, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Ferrell 1994, pp. 52, 53, 79.
- ISBN 9780816189151.
- ISBN 978-0-8108-9185-2.
- ^ a b Hamby 1995, pp. 17–18, 135.
- ISBN 978-0-07-042185-1.
- ISBN 978-0-8101-1218-6.
- ^ Jackman, Tom (Kansas City Star) (September 20, 1996). "49 Years Later, Truman Gets His Law License". Tuscaloosa News. Tuscaloosa, AL. p. 1D.
- ^ a b c d e f Gilwee 2000.
- ^ McCullough 1992, p. 105.
- ^ Truman Library, Eye 2012.
- ^ "Harry S. Truman's National Guard Enlistment Papers, June 22, 1917. RG407: Records of the Adjutant General's Office: Military Personnel File of Harry S. Truman, Subject Files. Service File, 1917–1957 [1 of 3]". Harry S. Truman Presidential Library & Museum. p. 3. Retrieved May 12, 2019.[permanent dead link]
- ISBN 978-0-8262-1203-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-4254-2.
- ^ a b Another Such Victory, p. 6.
- ^ McCullough 1992, pp. 105–110.
- ^ Giangreco, D. M. "Capt. Harry Truman & Battery D, 129th Field Artillery In Action in the Argonne". Doughboy Center: The Story of the American Expeditionary Forces. WorldWar1.com. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- ^ Current, Freidel & Williams 1971, p. 594.
- ^ Announcement of Harry S. Truman's Promotion to Captain, May 2, 1918
- ^ McCullough 1992, p. 115.
- ^ "Truman's Battery"
- ^ Burnes 2003, p. 49.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-57638-630-9.
- ^ McCullough 1992, pp. 130, 531.
- ^ Giangreco 2002, p. 192.
- ^ Giangreco 2002, pp. 181–186.
- ISBN 978-1-931112-99-4.
- ISBN 978-0-231-14333-2.
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- ^ Truman, Harry S. (March 19, 1911). "Letter from Harry S. Truman to Bess Wallace". Letter to Bess Wallace. Retrieved March 24, 2022.
- ^ Tiernan, L. Curtis. "Biographical Sketch, L. Curtis Tiernan". Monsignor L. Curtis Tiernan Papers. Independence, MO: Harry S. Truman Presidential Library & Museum. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
- ^ "Biographical Sketch, L. Curtis Tiernan".
- ^ "FAQ: Was President Truman the first Baptist president?". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved March 5, 2016..
- ^ Spalding, Elizabeth Edwards (2009), "Religion and the presidency of Harry S. Truman", in Espinosa, Gastón (ed.), Religion and the American Presidency: George Washington to George W. Bush, pp. 219–249.
- ISBN 978-0-313-26593-8.
- ^ "United States Army Officers' Reserve Corps Commission for Harry S. Truman, March 20, 1920". From Soldier to Senator: Harry S. Truman, 1918–1941. Independence, MO: Harry S. Truman Library and Museum. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
- ^ Pullen, Randy (1999). "Twice the Citizen—And Then Some". Army Reserve Magazine. Washington DC: U.S. Army Reserve: 12.
- ISBN 9780984190140.
- ^ Tucker, Frank (December 1, 2010). "Army History: Truman, you're too old ...". Gateway Today. St. Louis: Association of the United States Army, St. Louis Chapter. pp. 5–8.
- ^ a b Army History: Truman, you're too old
- ISBN 978-0-8262-1732-5.
- ^ "Biographical Sketch: Harry S. Truman, 33rd President of the United States". Trumanlibrary.org. Harry S. Truman Library and Museum. Retrieved May 27, 2016.
- ^ Pullen, Twice the Citizen
- ^ "Harry S. Truman Military Personnel File". Record Group 407. Washington DC: National Archives. 1917–1973. Retrieved December 17, 2018 – via Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum.
- ^ Truman Library 1919.
- ^ Goldstein 2008.
- ^ McCullough 1992, pp. 146, 151–152.
- ^ McCullough 1992, pp. 63–64, 68.
- ^ a b Ferrell 1994, p. 88.
- ^ Ferrell 1994, p. 86.
- ^ Hamby 1995, pp. 410–412.
- ^ a b Dallek 2008, p. 6.
- ^ Barr 2004.
- ^ Savage 1991, p. 65.
- ISBN 978-1-4022-1715-9 – via Google Books.
- ^ Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b United States Senate 2012.
- ^ a b "Grandview Masonic Lodge 618". Harry S. Truman Library and Museum. Independence, MO: National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved June 28, 2022.
- ^ Wright, Tom, ed. (July–August 1984). "ROA Conclave". The Air Reservist. Bolling Air Force Base, Washington, DC: Headquarters, United States Air Force. p. 29 – via Google Books.
- ^ Olson, Clarence H. (1963). Summary of the Proceedings of the Forty-fourth Annual Convention of the American Legion. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 98 – via Google Books.
- ^ Kirkendall 1989, p. 27.
- ^ Dallek 2008, pp. 7–9.
- ^ a b c Winn.
- ^ Time & January 8, 1973.
- ^ McCullough 1992, p. 232.
- ^ McCullough 1992, p. 230.
- ^ Dallek 2008, pp. 11–12.
- ^ Hamby 1995, pp. 236–247.
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Bibliography
Biographies of Truman
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- Judis, John B. (2014). Genesis: Truman, American Jews, and the Origins of the Arab/Israeli Conflict. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-16109-5.
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Books
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Primary sources
- Truman, Harry S. (1955). Memoirs: Year of Decisions. Vol. 1. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. online
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Journals
- Griffith, Robert, ed. (Autumn 1975). "Truman and the Historians: The Reconstruction of Postwar American history". The Wisconsin Magazine of History. 59 (1).
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- Neustadt, Richard E. (1954). "Congress and the Fair Deal: A Legislative Balance Sheet". Public Policy. 5. Boston. reprinted in Hamby 1974, pp. 15–42
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Time
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The Washington Post
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The New York Times
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- Weintraub, Stanley (2000). "MacArthur's War Korea and the Undoing of an American Hero". The New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Harry S. Truman Library and Museum
- McCray, Suzanne, and Tara Yglesias, eds. Wild about Harry: Everything You Have Ever Wanted to Know about the Truman Scholarship (University of Arkansas Press, 2021), how to work at this Library. online
- Giangreco, D. M.; Griffin, Robert E (1988). "The Airlift Begins: Airbridge to Berlin – The Berlin Crisis of 1948, its Origins and Aftermath". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on May 6, 2016. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- Marks, Ted (1962). "Oral History Interview with Ted Marks". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- Southern, Mrs. William (June 28, 1919). "Wedding of Bess Wallace and Capt. Harry S. Truman". The Examiner. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- Strout, Richard L. (February 5, 1971). "Oral History Interview with Richard L. Strout". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- Truman, Harry (May 14, 1948). "Memo recognizing the state of Israel". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on May 9, 2020. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- Truman, Harry (November 11, 1918). "WWI Letter from Harry to Bess". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
- Vest, Kathleen. "Truman's First Democratic Convention". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
- "Background Information". The Truman Balcony. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2012.
- "Background Information (Continued)". The Truman Balcony. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved October 16, 2012.
- "Biographical sketch of Mrs. Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "Birthplace of Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. 1988. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved July 25, 2012.
- "'The Buck Stops Here' Desk sign". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
- "Chronological Record of the 129th Field Artillery 1917–1919". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- "Desegregation of the Armed Forces". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on April 5, 2019. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- "Drugstore Clerk at 14 His First Job". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 25, 2012.
- "Eleanor and Harry: The Correspondence of Eleanor Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on October 8, 2018. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- "FAQ: Is the letter on display that Truman wrote in defense of his daughter's singing?". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. December 6, 1950. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman Post-Presidential Papers". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- "Harry Truman joins Battery B of the Missouri National Guard". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- "Memorandum of Information for the Secretary – Blockade of Korea". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. July 6, 1950. Archived from the original on August 9, 2007. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- "Military Personnel File of Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- "President Lyndon B. Johnson Signs Medicare Bill". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. July 30, 1965. Archived from the original on May 27, 2019. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "President Truman Addresses Congress on Proposed Health Program, Washington, D.C". This Day in Truman History. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. November 19, 1945. Archived from the original on June 14, 2019. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- McDonald, John W. (May 1984). "10 of Truman's Happiest Years Spent in Senate". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved May 10, 2014. Originally published in the Independence Examiner, Truman Centennial Edition.
- "Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on May 9, 2020. Retrieved December 2, 2012.
- "Use of the Period After the "S" in Harry S. Truman's Name". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
Online sources
- Roberts, Christopher N.J. (1949). "William H. Fitzpatrick's Editorials on Human Rights". Quellen zur Geschichte der Menschenrechte. Retrieved November 4, 2017., published by Arbeitskreis Menschenrechte im 20. Jahrhundert
- "Special Designation Liting". Army National Guard, United States Army. Archived from the original on December 12, 2018. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
- ""Mike" Device is Tested". Atomic Archive. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- Bennett, Stephen Earl (May 2012). "Restoration of Confidence: Polling's Comeback from 1948". Public Opinion Pros. Archived from the original on March 5, 2012. Retrieved November 1, 2012.
- Berdichevsky, Norman (May 2012). "Israel: From Darling of the Left to Pariah State". New English Review. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
- Curran, Jeanne; Takata, Susan R. (2002). "Getting a Sample Isn't Always Easy". Dear Habermas. California State University—Dominguez Hills. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012. Retrieved September 6, 2012.
- "U.S. Constitution: Twenty-second Amendment". Find Law. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- Giangreco, D. M. (April 7, 2002). "Soldier from Independence: Harry S. Truman and the Great War". U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- Gilwee, William J. (2000). "Capt. Harry Truman, Artilleryman and Future President". Doughboy Center: The Story of the American Expeditionary Forces. Worldwar1.com. Archived from the original on June 14, 2008. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- Goldstein, Steve (January 31, 2008). "First Daughter". Obit mag. Archived from the original on May 10, 2012. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- Hamby, Alonzo. "Presidency: How Do Historians Evaluate the Administration of Harry Truman?". History News Network. George Mason University. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
- Higgs, Robert (March 1, 2004). "Truman's Attempt to Seize the Steel Industry". The Freeman. The Independent Institute. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- Jones, Tim (October 31, 2020). "Dewey defeats Truman". Chicago Tribune. p. 1. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- Miller, Henry I. (August 1, 2012). "The Nuking of Japan was a Tactical and Moral Imperative". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved May 10, 2017.
- Moynihan, Daniel Patrick (1997). "Chairman's Forward" (PDF). Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy. Government Printing Office. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
- "Reading 2: Goodwill Ambassador to the World". National Park Service. 1961. Retrieved September 1, 2012.
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- Smith, Stephanie (March 18, 2008). "Former Presidents: Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits" (PDF). U.S. Senate Congressional Research Service. Retrieved September 5, 2022.
- "America in the Second World War: The Manhattan Project". U.S. History. 2012. Retrieved July 30, 2012.
- "Presidential Funerals: Services Following Deaths of American Presidents". Washington National Cathedral. 2012. Archived from the original on August 13, 2012. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
- Winn, Kenneth H. "It All Adds Up: Reform and the Erosion of Representative Government in Missouri, 1900–2000". Missouri Secretary of State. Retrieved July 30, 2012.
- Wooten, James T. (January 6, 1973). "Truman Honored By World Notables At Cathedral Rites". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved November 1, 2012.
- "American President: A Reference Resource". Miller Center, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on October 30, 2012. Retrieved September 9, 2012.
- "Biographical Dictionary of the Federal Judiciary". Washington, D.C.: Federal Judicial Center. Archived from the original on July 30, 2016. Retrieved March 4, 2012. searches run from page, "select research categories" then check "court type" and "nominating president", then select U.S. District Courts (or U.S. Circuit Courts) and also Harry Truman.
- "C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leadership". Archived from the original on February 17, 2009. Retrieved April 5, 2010.
- "Siena College Research Institute 2022 Survey of U.S. Presidents" (PDF). 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 7, 2023.
- "Chapter 12: The President Intervenes". U.S. Army Center of Military History. 2012. Archived from the original on August 24, 2012. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
- "Executive Order 9981, Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, Harry S. Truman". Federal Register. National Archives. 1948. Retrieved September 6, 2012.
- "Hall of Famous Missourians". Missouri House of Representatives. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman: 2nd Confederate President". The Missouri Partisan Ranger. 1995. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman – 1948". United States Federal Archives. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) Thirty-third President (1945–1952)". The Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania. 2011. Archived from the original on July 17, 2012. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman, 34th Vice President (1945)". United States Senate. 2012. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved July 30, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman Birthplace State Historic Site". Missouri State Parks and Historic Sites. 2012. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2012.
- "Inauguration of the President: Fact & Firsts". United States Senate. 2005. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
- "Interview Transcripts: The Potsdam Conference". The American Experience. PBS. 2012. Archived from the original on April 19, 2008. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
- "Job Performance Ratings for President Truman". Public Opinion Archives. Roper Center. 2010. Archived from the original on February 8, 2013. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- "Truman Fellowship". Sandia National Laboratories. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
- "Our History: A Living Memorial". Harry S. Truman Scholarship Foundation. Archived from the original on November 3, 2012. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman School of Public Affairs". Truman School of Public Affairs, University of Missouri. Retrieved June 18, 2008.
- "March 1, 1941: The Truman Committee". United States Senate. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
- "Records of the Committee on Government Contract Compliance". United States Federal Archives. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- "State Department headquarters named for Harry S. Truman". CNN. Associated Press. September 22, 2000. Archived from the original on December 8, 2004. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
- "Truman Reconstruction: 1948–1952". White House Museum. 1952. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
- "U.S. Domestic Politics in the Early Cold War Era, 1947–1961". The Ohio State University. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- "USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)". NavSource Online. July 10, 2012. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
External links
Official
Media coverage
- Harry S. Truman collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Newspaper clippings about Harry S. Truman in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
Other
- United States Congress. "Harry S. Truman (id: T000387)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
- Harry S. Truman: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
- Federal Bureau of Investigation Records: The Vault – Harry S. Truman
- Essays on Harry S. Truman, each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
- The Presidents: Truman Archived December 26, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, an American Experience documentary
- Works by or about Harry S. Truman at Internet Archive
- Works by Harry S. Truman at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- "Life Portrait of Harry S. Truman", from American presidents: Life Portraits, October 18, 1999
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Harry S. Truman Personal Manuscripts
- Harry S. Truman at IMDb
- Works by Harry S. Truman at Project Gutenberg
- 1948 election episode in CNN's Race for the White House
This article incorporates public domain material from Records of the Adjutant General's Office. National Archives and Records Administration.