Hart Crane

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Hart Crane
The Bridge
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Harold Hart Crane (July 21, 1899 – April 27, 1932) was an American poet, best known for his only

The Bridge. Inspired by T. S. Eliot, Crane wrote highly stylized modernist poetry, often noted for its complexity. He published poems in various literary magazines throughout his life, as well as two collections: White Buildings (1926) and The Bridge (1930). White Buildings helped to cement his place in the avant-garde literary scene of the time. In The Bridge, he tried to write an epic poem in the style of The Waste Land, that expressed a more optimistic view of modern, urban culture than the one that he found in Eliot's work. The Broken Tower
(1932) was meant to be his last published poem. However, it only appeared in print following his death.

Crane was born in

The Bridge (1930), intended to be an uplifting counter to Eliot's The Waste Land. Initial critical reaction to it was mixed, with many praising the scope but criticizing the quality of the poems. On April 27, 1932, Crane, in an inebriated state, jumped off the steamship USS Orizaba and into the Gulf of Mexico while the ship was en route to New York. He left no suicide note, but witnesses believed his intentions to be suicidal. Throughout his life, he had multiple homosexual relations, many of which were described by, or otherwise influenced, his poetry. He had one known female partner, Peggy Cowley
, around a year before his death.

Contemporary opinion was mixed, with poets including Marianne Moore and Wallace Stevens criticizing his work and others, including William Carlos Williams and E. E. Cummings, praising it. Posthumously, Crane has been praised by several playwrights, poets, and literary critics (including Robert Lowell, Derek Walcott, Tennessee Williams, and Harold Bloom).[1][2][3]

Life

Early life

Crane was born in Garrettsville, Ohio to Clarence A. Crane and Grace Edna Hart. His father was a successful Ohio restaurateur[4] and businessman who invented the Life Savers candy and held the patent, but sold it for $2,900 before the brand became popular.[5] He made other candy and accumulated a fortune from the business with chocolate bars.

In 1894, the family moved to

Corn Products Refining Company. In April 1911, his father opened a chocolate manufacturing and retailing company, the Crane Chocolate Company. The family moved to Cleveland in 1911, into a house at 1709 East 115th Street. In 1913, Clarence Crane's parents purchased the residence opposite the Hart's.[6]
: 61, 63 

Hart Crane began attending East High School around 1913–1914.[4][6]: 63 [notes 1]

Career

He has woven rose-vines
About the empty heart of night,
And vented his long mellowed wines
Of dreaming on the desert white
With searing sophistry.
And he tented with far thruths he would form
The transient bosoms from the thorny tree.

O Materna! to enrich thy gold head
And wavering shoulders with a new light shed

From penitence, must needs bring pain,
And with it song of minor, broken strain.
But you who hear the lamp whisper thru night
Can trace paths tear-wet, and forget all blight.

Hart Crane's "C33" as published in Bruno's Weekly in 1917.[7] : 28 

Crane's first published work poem was "C33", which was published in the Greenwich journal Bruno's Weekly in 1917[8]: 75  in a feature entitled "Oscar Wilde: Poems in His Praise".[7]: 22  The poem is named after Oscar Wilde's cell in The Ballad of Reading Gaol[4] and his name appeared misspelled in print as "Harold H Crone".[7]: 27  The style he'd use in his later books is apparent in poems written at the time.[9][10] Crane dropped out of East High School in Cleveland during his junior year[5] in December 1916[6] and left for New York City, promising his parents he would later attend Columbia University. His parents, in the middle of their divorce proceedings, were upset. Crane took various copywriting jobs and moved between friends' apartments in Manhattan.[5] Crane's mother and father were constantly fighting, and they divorced on April 14, 1917.[11][notes 2] The same year, he attempted to enlist in the military, but was rejected due to being a minor.[12]

He worked in a munitions plant until the end of World War I.[12] Between 1917 and 1924, he moved back and forth between New York and Cleveland,[4] working as an advertising copywriter[13] and a worker in his father's factory.[14] In 1925, he briefly lived with Caroline Gordon and Allen Tate. The two had a dispute with Crane due to the mess his belongings made throughout the house. Additionally, Crane and Allen Tate had a disagreement over the negative outlook of T. S. Eliot's work. This prompted them to leave two letters under his door requesting that he move out, which he complied with.[15] He wrote his mother and grandmother in the spring of 1924:

Just imagine looking out your window directly on the East River with nothing intervening between your view of the Statue of Liberty, way down the harbour, and the marvelous beauty of Brooklyn Bridge close above you on your right! All of the great new skyscrapers of lower Manhattan are marshaled directly across from you, and there is a constant stream of tugs, liners, sail boats, etc in procession before you on the river! It's really a magnificent place to live. This section of Brooklyn is very old, but all the houses are in splendid condition and have not been invaded by foreigners...[5]

Based on Crane's letters, New York was where he felt most at home. Additionally, much of his poetry takes place there.[16]

White Buildings (1926)

Main articles: White Buildings and Voyages

Throughout the early 1920s, many small but well-respected literary magazines published some of Crane's poems, gaining him among the avant-garde respect which was later cemented by the 1926 publication of White Buildings.[

Liveright Publishing to published White Buildings in July.[4] White Buildings contains many of Crane's most well-received and popular poems, including "For the Marriage of Faustus and Helen", and "Voyages", a sequence of erotic poems. They were written while he was falling in love with Emil Opffer,[17] a Danish merchant mariner,[18] whom "Voyages" is generally considered to be about.[4] "Faustus and Helen" was part of a larger artistic struggle to meet modernity with something more than despair. Crane identified T. S. Eliot with that kind of despair, and while he acknowledged the greatness of The Waste Land, he also said it was "so damned dead",[19] an impasse,[20] and characterized by a refusal to see "certain spiritual events and possibilities".[21] Crane's self-appointed work would be to bring those spiritual events and possibilities to poetic life, and so create "a mystical synthesis of America".[22]

Crane returned to New York in 1928 following a hurricane which damaged left the Cuban residence,

Brooklyn Heights
. Crane was overjoyed at the views the location afforded him.

The Bridge (1930)

Main article:
The Bridge

The first known mention of The Bridge was in a 1923 letter to Gorham Munson in which he wrote:

I am ruminating on a new longish poem under the title of The Bridge which carries on further the tendencies manifest in ‘F and H.’ It will be exceedingly difficult to accomplish it as I see it now, so much time will be wasted in thinking about it.[4]

Crane moved to

Majorca, but instead went first to London then to Paris.[4] In Paris in February 1929, Harry Crosby, who with his wife Caresse Crosby owned the fine arts press Black Sun Press, offered Crane the use of their country retreat, Le Moulin du Soleil in Ermenonville. They hoped he could use the time to concentrate on completing The Bridge. Crane spent several weeks at their estate where he wrote a draft of the "Cape Hatteras" section, a key part of his panegyric poem.[24] In late June that year, Crane returned from the south of France to Paris. Crosby noted in his journal, "Hart C. back from Marseilles where he slept with his thirty sailors and he began again to drink Cutty Sark
." Crane got drunk at the Cafe Select and fought with waiters over his tab. When the Paris police were called, he fought with them and was beaten. They arrested and jailed him, fining him 800 francs.[5] After Hart had spent six days in prison at La Santé, Crosby paid Crane's fine and advanced him money for the passage back to the United States,[24] where he finished The Bridge.[5] In January 1930, the work was published by Black Sun Press in Paris and subsequently by Boni & Liveright in the United States in April.[4] The work received poor reviews, and Crane struggled with a sense of failure.[12]

His ambition to synthesize America was expressed in The Bridge, intended to be an uplifting counter to Eliot's The Waste Land. The Brooklyn Bridge is both the poem's central symbol and its poetic starting point.[12] Crane found a place to start his synthesis in Brooklyn. Arts patron Otto H. Kahn gifted him $2,000 to begin work on the panegyric poem,[5] though he requested a loan of $1,000.[4] After parting with the Opffers, Crane left for Paris in early 1929, but continued to struggle with his mental health.[5] His drinking became notably worse during the late 1920s, while he was finishing The Bridge.[25]

"The Broken Tower" (1932)

Main article: The Broken Tower

He visited his father, who had started an inn in the vicinity of Chagrin Falls, Ohio, in 1931.[4] Crane visited Mexico in 1931–32 on a Guggenheim Fellowship, and his drinking continued as he suffered from bouts of alternating depression and elation. When Peggy Cowley, wife of his friend Malcolm Cowley, agreed to a divorce, she joined Crane.[12] The two began a romantic relationship on December 25, 1931.[4] As far as is known, she was his only heterosexual partner.[12] "The Broken Tower", one of his last published poems, emerged from that affair. Crane still felt himself a failure, in part because he recommenced his homosexual activities in spite of his relationship with Cowley.[12] He claimed he would commit suicide multiple times.[8]: 78 

"The Broken Tower" is the last poem meant to be published by poet Hart Crane in 1932. He intended it to be "an epic of the modern consciousness."

Poetry Magazine, and only appeared in print (in the June 1932 edition of The New Republic[31]
) after Crane's suicide by water.

Death

Crane and Peggy

Havana, Cuba on April 26.[34] While aboard, Crane was assaulted after making sexual advances to a male crew member.[35]

Just before noon on April 27, 1932, Crane jumped overboard into the Gulf of Mexico.[notes 3] Although he had been drinking heavily and left no suicide note, witnesses believed his intentions to be suicidal, as several reported that he exclaimed "Goodbye, everybody!" before jumping overboard.[37] The ship was about 300 miles away from Cuba. An article the following day from the New York Times linked his death to his father's.[34] His body was never recovered. A marker on his father's tombstone at Park Cemetery outside Garrettsville, Portage County, Ohio[38] includes the inscription, "Harold Hart Crane 1899–1932 lost at sea".[39]

Writing

Influences

Crane was heavily influenced by T. S. Eliot, in particular The Waste Land. The Bridge was intended to be a more optimistic view of society than that of The Waste Land. He first read The Waste Land in the November 1922 edition of The Dial.[30]: 122–123 

Walt Whitman, William Blake, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Emily Dickinson were also particularly influential to Crane.[40][12] As a teenager, Crane also read Plato, Honoré de Balzac, and Percy Bysshe Shelley.[12]

Criticism

Crane's critical effort is mostly to be found in his letters: he corresponded regularly with Allen Tate, Yvor Winters, and Gorham Munson, and shared critical dialogues with Eugene O'Neill, William Carlos Williams, E. E. Cummings, Sherwood Anderson, Kenneth Burke, Waldo Frank, Harriet Monroe, Marianne Moore, and Gertrude Stein. He was also an acquaintance of H. P. Lovecraft, who eventually would voice concern over Crane's premature aging due to alcohol abuse.[41] Selections of Crane's letters are available in many editions of his poetry. His two most famous stylistic defenses emerged from correspondences: his "General Aims and Theories" (1925) was written to urge Eugene O'Neill's critical foreword to White Buildings, then passed around among friends, yet unpublished during Crane's life; and the famous "Letter to Harriet Monroe" (1926) was part of an exchange for the publication of "At Melville's Tomb" in Poetry.

"Logic of metaphor"

Crane's most quoted criticism is in the circulated, if long and unpublished, "General Aims and Theories": "As to technical considerations: the motivation of the poem must be derived from the implicit emotional dynamics of the materials used, and the terms of expression employed are often selected less for their logical (literal) significance than for their associational meanings. Via this and their metaphorical inter-relationships, the entire construction of the poem is raised on the organic principle of a 'logic of metaphor,' which antedates our so-called pure logic, and which is the genetic basis of all speech, hence consciousness and thought-extension."[42]: 163 

There is also some mention of it, though it is not so much presented as a critical neologism, in his letter to Harriet Monroe: "The logic of metaphor is so organically entrenched in pure sensibility that it can't be thoroughly traced or explained outside of historical sciences, like philology and anthropology."[42]: 166  L. S. Dembo's influential study of The Bridge, Hart Crane's Sanskrit Charge (1960), reads this 'logic' well within the familiar rhetoric of the Romantics: "The Logic of metaphor was simply the written form of the 'bright logic' of the imagination, the crucial sign stated, the Word made words.... As practiced, the logic of metaphor theory is reducible to a fairly simple linguistic principle: the symbolized meaning of an image takes precedence over its literal meaning; regardless of whether the vehicle of an image makes sense, the reader is expected to grasp its tenor."[43]

Style

Difficulty

The willows carried a slow sound,
A sarabande the wind mowed on the mead.
I could never remember
That seething, steady leveling of the marshes
Till age had brought me to the sea.

From "Repose of Rivers"
from White Buildings (1926)[44]

The publication of White Buildings was delayed by Eugene O'Neill's struggle (and eventual failure) to articulate his appreciation in a foreword to it; and many critics since have used Crane's difficulty as an excuse for a quick dismissal.[citation needed] O'Neill did, however, write a draft for such a foreword. The text said of Crane that "the great difficulty which his poetry presents the reader, is naturally, the style. The theme never appears in explicit statement". The publisher Harcourt rejected White Buildings, with Harrison Smith writing Crane is "a genuine poet ... [but White Buildings] is really the most perplexing kind of poetry."[45] A young Tennessee Williams, then falling in love with Crane's poetry, could "hardly understand a single line—of course the individual lines aren't supposed to be intelligible. The message, if there actually is one, comes from the total effect.".[46] Crane was aware that his poetry was difficult. Some of his essays originated as encouraging epistles, explications and stylistic apologies to editors, updates to his patron, and both well-considered or impulsive letters to friends. It was only his exchange with Harriet Monroe at Poetry, when she initially refused to print "At Melville's Tomb", that urged Crane to describe his "logic of metaphor" in print:[33]: 191 

"If the poet is to be held completely to the already evolved and exploited sequences of imagery and logic—what field of added consciousness and increased perceptions (the actual province of poetry, if not lullabies) can be expected when one has to relatively return to the alphabet every breath or two? In the minds of people who have sensitively read, seen, and experienced a great deal, isn't there a terminology something like short-hand as compared to usual description and dialectics, which the artist ought to be right in trusting as a reasonable connective agent toward fresh concepts, more inclusive evaluations?"[42]: 281 

Monroe was not impressed, though she acknowledged that others were, and printed the exchange alongside the poem:

"You find me testing metaphors, and poetic concept in general, too much by logic, whereas I find you pushing logic to the limit in a painfully intellectual search for emotion, for poetic motive."[47]

Crane had a relatively well-developed rhetoric for the defense of his poems; here is an excerpt from "General Aims and Theories":

"New conditions of life germinate new forms of spiritual articulation. ...the voice of the present, if it is to be known, must be caught at the risk of speaking in idioms and circumlocutions sometimes shocking to the scholar and historians of logic."[42]: 164 

"Homosexual text"

As a child, he had a sexual relationship with a man.[notes 4] He associated his sexuality with his vocation as a poet. Raised in the Christian Science tradition of his mother, he viewed himself as a social pariah. However, as poems such as "Repose of Rivers" make clear, he felt that this sense of alienation was necessary in order for him to attain the insight that formed the basis for his poetic work.[original research?]

Recent criticism has suggested reading Crane's poems—"The Broken Tower", "My Grandmother's Love Letters", the "Voyages" series, and others—with an eye to homosexual meanings in the text. Queer theorist Tim Dean argues that the obscurity of Crane's style owes partially to the necessities of being a semi-public homosexual—not quite closeted, but also, as legally and culturally necessary, not open: "The intensity responsible for Crane's particular form of difficulty involves not only linguistic considerations but also culturally subjective concerns. This intensity produces a kind of privacy that is comprehensible in terms of the cultural construction of homosexuality and its attendant institutions of privacy."[49]

Thomas Yingling objects to the traditional,

myth criticism and formalist readings" have "depolarized and normalized our reading of American poetry, making any homosexual readings seem perverse."[50]
Even more than a personal or political problem, though, Yingling argues that such "biases" obscure much of what the poems make clear; he cites, for instance, the last lines of "My Grandmother's Love Letters" from White Buildings as a haunting description of estrangement from the norms of (heterosexual) family life:

Yet I would lead my grandmother by the hand
Through much of what she would not understand;
And so I stumble. And the rain continues on the roof
With such a sound of gently pitying laughter.

Brian Reed has contributed to a project of critical reintegration of queer criticism with other critical methods, suggesting that an overemphasis on the sexual biography of Crane's poetry can skew a broader appreciation of his overall work.[51] In one example of Reed's approach, he published a close reading of Crane's lyric poem, "Voyages", (a love poem that Crane wrote for his lover Emil Opffer) on the Poetry Foundation website, analyzing the poem based strictly on the content of the text itself and not on outside political or cultural matters.[52]

Accusations of plagiarism

A 1916 self-portrait of Samuel Greenberg.

In mid-December 1926, Crane visited William Murrell Fisher in Woodstock, a literary critic whom he first met via their mutual friend Gorham Munson. There, Fisher shared with Crane multiple manuscripts of poems by Samuel Greenberg,a little-known poet who had died in 1917. Writing to Gorham Munson on December 20, Crane wrote “This poet, Grünberg, [sic] which Fisher nursed until he died of consumption at a Jewish Hospital in New York was a Rimbaud in embryo ... Fisher has shown me an amazing amount of material, some of which I am copying and will show you when I get back.” Morris Greenberg, Samuel's brother, had given five of Samuel’s notebooks to Fisher so that he could get them published. [notes 5] Crane copied forty-two poems from the notebooks, which he borrowed from Fisher for a period of less than a month. [notes 6] Many of Crane's poems consisted of lines and phrases taken from Greenberg's poems, always unatributed. Crane's poem “Emblems of Conduct”, the third in White Buildings consisted solely of rearranged lines from Greenberg's poems.[30]: 344–346 

The plaigarism went unnoticed for decades until Marc Simon published Samuel Greenberg, Hart Crane and the Lost Manuscripts in 1978, detailing how Crane copied from Greenberg.[citation needed] Scholarly interpretation over the intent and morality of Hart Crane's actions varies.[53] Writer and critic Samuel R. Delany argues Crane merely tried to draw attention to an unknown poet and wanted readers to experience for themselves the delight of realizing one of his influences without him telling them.[30]: 346 

Influence

Among contemporaries

Crane was admired by artists including Eugene O'Neill, Kenneth Burke, Edmund Wilson, E. E. Cummings and William Carlos Williams. Although Crane had his sharp critics, among them Marianne Moore and Ezra Pound, Moore did publish his work, as did T. S. Eliot, who, moving even further out of Pound's sphere, may have borrowed some of Crane's imagery for Four Quartets, in the beginning of "East Coker", which is reminiscent of the final section of "The River", from The Bridge.[54]

Yvor Winters and Allen Tate both praised White Buildings but considered The Bridge to be a failure.[32]: 526 

Legacy

Mid-century American poets, such as John Berryman and Robert Lowell, cited Crane as a significant influence. Both poets also wrote about Crane in their poetry. Berryman wrote him one of his famous elegies in The Dream Songs, and Lowell published his "Words for Hart Crane" in Life Studies (1959): "Who asks for me, the Shelley of my age, / must lay his heart out for my bed and board." Lowell thought that Crane was the most important American poet of the generation to come of age in the 1920s, stating that "[Crane] got out more than anybody else ... he somehow got New York City; he was at the center of things in the way that no other poet was."[1] Lowell also described Crane as being "less limited than any other poet of his generation."[55]

Tennessee Williams said that he wanted to be "given back to the sea" at the "point most nearly determined as the point at which Hart Crane gave himself back".[56] One of Williams's last plays, a "ghost play" titled Steps Must Be Gentle, explores Crane's relationship with his mother.[57]

In a 1991 interview with Antonio Weiss of

Yeats and Stevens would be Hart Crane.[58]

Bloom also authored the introduction to the centennial edition of the Complete Poems of Hart Crane.[59]

Thomas Lux has stated, "If the devil came to me and said 'Tom, you can be dead and Hart can be alive,' I'd take the deal in a heartbeat if the devil promised, when arisen, Hart would have to go straight into A.A."[60]

The literary critic Adam Kirsch has argued that "[Crane has been] a special case in the canon of American modernism, his reputation never quite as secure as that of Eliot or Stevens."[61]

In 2011, the American poet Gerald Stern wrote an essay on Crane in which he stated, "Some, when they talk about Crane, emphasize his drinking, his chaotic life, his self-doubt, and the dangers of his sexual life, but he was able to manage these things, even though he died at 32, and create a poetry that was tender, attentive, wise, and radically original." At the conclusion of his essay, Stern writes, "Crane is always with me, and whatever I wrote, short poem or long, strange or unstrange—his voice, his tone, his sense of form, his respect for life, his love of the word, his vision have affected me. But I don't want, in any way, to exploit or appropriate this amazing poet whom I am, after all, so different from, he who may be, finally, the great poet, in English, of the twentieth century."[62]

Beyond poetry, Crane's suicide inspired several works of art by noted artist Jasper Johns, including "Periscope", "Land's End", and "Diver", as well as the "Symphony for Three Orchestras" by Elliott Carter (inspired by The Bridge) and the painting Eight Bells' Folly, Memorial for Hart Crane by Marsden Hartley.[63]

Depictions

Crane is the subject of The Broken Tower, a 2011 American student film by the actor James Franco who wrote, directed, and starred in the film which was the master's thesis project for his MFA in filmmaking at New York University. He loosely based his script on Paul Mariani's 1999 nonfiction book The Broken Tower: A Life of Hart Crane.[64] Despite being a student film, The Broken Tower was shown at the Los Angeles Film Festival in 2011[65] and received DVD distribution in 2012 by Focus World Films.[66]

Crane appears as a character in Samuel R. Delany's story "Atlantis: Model 1924",[67] and in The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson.[68]

Bibliography

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Thomas S. W. Lewis, in a 1969 piece for Salmagundi, states he began attending East High School in 1914. The Oxford Research Encyclopedia entry on Hart Crane states he was enrolled in 1913.
  2. ^ Page 35 of Paul Mariani's The Broken Tower: The Life of Hart Crane states that the divorce was expected to conclude on April 1st.
  3. ^ Clive Fisher's biography of Crane, Hart Crane: A Life, mistakenly states he jumped into the Caribbean.[36]
  4. ^ "[That] Hart Crane was homosexual was by now well known to most of his friends. He said to Evans that he had been seduced as a boy by an older man."[48]
  5. ^ Philip Horton, in his 1937 biography of Hart Crane, Hart Crane: The Life of an American Poet, incorrectly states on page 160 that Fisher had “inherited the notebooks through the indifference of the boy’s relatives”.
  6. ^ Hart Crane: The Life of an American Poet claims Crane brought the notebooks with him, when moving from Woodstock to New York in January 1927. This is because William Slater Brown remembered Crane had read some of the poems on the train ride home. Marc Simon later spoke to Fisher, who said Crane had certainly returned the notebooks before moving to New York. The poems Brown heard were read aloud from the manuscripts.

References

  1. ^ a b Pritchard, William (29 June 2003). "Life Studies". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  2. ^ Bloom, Harold. "Introduction". The Complete Poems of Hart Crane. New York: Liveright, 2001.
  3. ^ "Hart Crane". Voice and Visions Video Series. Produced by the New York Center for Visual History. 1988. [1] Archived 2019-06-30 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ^
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  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Lockwood, Brad (April 27, 2011). "On This Day in History: April 27 'Bridge' Poet Leaps Overboard". Brooklyn Daily Eagle. Archived from the original on 2015-02-02. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  6. ^
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  11. ^ Gildzen, Alez. "Hart Crane and family papers". Kent State Libraries. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i Poetry Foundation profile
  13. ^ Tóibín, Colm. "A Great American Visionary". New York Review of Books. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
  14. ISBN 978-1-936323-93-7
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  16. ^ "The Bridge by Hart Crane". Kent State University Libraries. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
  17. ^ Reed, Brian. "Hart Crane: "Voyages"". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
  18. ^ Bose, Sudip. "The Open Sea". The Washington Post. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
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  21. ^ Tóibín, Colm (2008-04-17). "A Great American Visionary". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
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  24. ^ a b Dictionary of Literary Biography on (Harold) Hart Crane. BookRags.com. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
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  34. ^ a b "Poet's Death Linked With Loss of Father". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2024.
  35. ^ Holden, Stephen (2012-04-26). "Intoxicated by Language, a Poet Is Destroyed by Life: James Franco is Hart Crane in 'The Broken Tower'". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  36. ^ Logan, William (February 2024). "The Hart Crane Controversy". The Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
  37. ISBN 9781555831646
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  43. ^ Dembo (1960). Hart Crane's Sanskrit charge : a study of The bridge. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 34.
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  45. JSTOR 29784404
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  46. ^ Leverich, Lyle. Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams. New York: Crown Publishers, 1995. p. 162
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  49. ^ Dean (1996) p. 84
  50. ^ Yingling (1990) p. 3
  51. ^ Reed (2006)
  52. ^ Reed, Brian. "Hart Crane: "Voyages' Archived 2011-02-12 at the Wayback Machine". The Poetry Foundation. Retrieved February 2, 2011.
  53. ^ Silverman, Jacob. "Rimbaud in Embryo".
  54. ^ Oser, Lee. T. S. Eliot and American Poetry. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1998. pp. 112–114.
  55. ^ "Hart Crane Biographical Sketch Online". Archived from the original on 2009-06-23. Retrieved 2012-01-25.
  56. ^ Leverich (1995) pp. 9–10
  57. ^ The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, V. 6. New York: New Directions, 1971–1992.
  58. ^ Weiss, Antonio. "Harold Bloom, The Art of Criticism No. 1." The Paris Review. Spring 1991, No. 118.[2]
  59. ^ Clark, Suzanne. "17 Poetry: 1900 to the 1940s". Project Muse. Duke University Press. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  60. ^ Davis, Peter. Poet's book-shelf: Contemporary Poets on Books That Shaped Their Art. Selma, IN: Barnwood Press, 2005. p. 126
  61. ^ Kirsch, Adam. "The Mystic Word. The New Yorker. October 9, 2006
  62. ^ "The Poem That Changed My Life: On Hart Crane's 'Eternity'" Archived 2012-03-25 at the Wayback Machine, Gerald Stern, American Poet, Fall 2011, Issue 41.
  63. ^ MacGowan, Christopher John. 20th-century American Poetry. Maldon, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2004. p. 74
  64. ^ Monaghan, Peter (April 11, 2011). "James Franco Brings Hart Crane to the Big Screen". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved June 19, 2011.
  65. ^ Pfefferman, Naomi (June 15, 2011). "James Franco Q & A: His Film on Tortured Gay Poet Hart Crane". The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles. Archived from the original on June 20, 2011. Retrieved June 19, 2011.
  66. ^ Fischer, Russ (11 January 2012). "'The Broken Tower' Teaser Trailer: James Franco Directs, Writes And Stars In A Poet's Life Story". Slashfilm. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
  67. JSTOR 43486795
    . Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  68. ISBN 9780440539810
    .

Further reading

Biographies

Selected criticism

  • Combs, Robert. Vision of the Voyage: Hart Crane and the Psychology of Romanticism. Memphis, Tennessee: Memphis State University Press, 1978.
  • Corn, Alfred. "Hart Crane's 'Atlantis'". The Metamorphoses of Metaphor. New York: Viking, 1987.
  • Dean, Tim. "Hart Crane's Poetics of Privacy". American Literary History 8:1, 1996.
  • Dembo, L. S. Hart Crane's Sanskrit Charge: A Study of The Bridge. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1960).
  • Gabriel, Daniel. Hart Crane and the Modernist Epic: Canon and Genre Formation in Crane, Pound, Eliot and Williams. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
  • Grossman, Allen. "Hart Crane and Poetry: A Consideration of Crane's Intense Poetics With Reference to 'The Return'". ELH 48:4, 1981.
  • Grossman, Allen. "On Communicative Difficulty in General and 'Difficult' Poetry in Particular: The Example of Hart Crane's 'The Broken Tower'". Poem Present lecture series at the University of Chicago, 2004.
  • Hammer, Langdon. Hart Crane & Allen Tate: Janus-Faced Modernism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
  • Hanley, Alfred. Hart Crane's Holy Vision: "White Buildings". Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Duquesne University Press, 1981.
  • Herman, Barbara. "The Language of Hart Crane", The Sewanee Review 58, 1950.
  • Lewis, R. W. B. The Poetry of Hart Crane: A Critical Study. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967.
  • Munro, Niall. Hart Crane's Queer Modernist Aesthetic. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
  • Nickowitz, Peter. Rhetoric and Sexuality: The Poetry of Hart Crane, Elizabeth Bishop, and James Merrill. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
  • Pease, Donald. "Blake, Crane, Whitman, and Modernism: A Poetics of Pure Possibility". PMLA 96:1, 1981.
  • Ramsey, Roger. "A Poetics for The Bridge". Twentieth Century Literature 26:3, 1980.
  • Reed, Brian. "Hart Crane's Victrola". Modernism/Modernity 7.1, 2000.
  • Reed, Brian. Hart Crane: After His Lights. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 2006.
  • Riddel, Joseph. "Hart Crane's Poetics of Failure". ELH 33, 1966.
  • Rowe, John Carlos. "The 'Super-Historical' Sense of Hart Crane's The Bridge". Genre 11:4, 1978.
  • Schwartz, Joseph. Hart Crane: A Reference Guide. Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1983.
  • Michael Snediker. "Hart Crane's Smile". Modernism/modernity 12.4, 2005.
  • Poems from the Greenberg manuscript: a selection of the poems of Samuel Bernard Greenberg, the unknown poet who influenced HART CRANE ; edited, with biographical notes, by James Laughlin; New, expanded edition, edited by Garrett Caples, New York : New Directions Publishing, 2019,
    ISBN 978-0-8112-2813-8
  • Trachtenberg, Alan. Brooklyn Bridge: Fact and Symbol. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.
  • Unterecker, John. "The Architecture of The Bridge". Wisconsin Studies in Contemporary Literature 3:2, 1962.
  • Winters, Yvor. "The Progress of Hart Crane". Poetry 36, June 1930.
  • Winters, Yvor In Defense of Reason. New York: The Swallow Press and William Morrow, 1947.
  • Woods, Gregory, "Articulate Flesh: Male Homo-eroticism and Modern Poetry". New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1987.
  • Yannella, Philip R. "'Inventive Dust': The Metamorphoses of 'For the Marriage of Faustus and Helen'". Contemporary Literature 15, 1974.
  • Yingling, Thomas E. Hart Crane and the Homosexual Text: New Thresholds, New Anatomies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Hart Crane.
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