Heaven
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Heaven, or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife or, in exceptional cases, enter Heaven without dying.
Heaven is often described as a "highest place", the
Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, heaven is considered as Svargaloka,[1] and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as the otherworld.
At least in the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity, Islam, and some schools of Judaism, as well as Zoroastrianism, heaven is the realm of afterlife where good actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity (hell being the place where bad behavior is punished).
Etymology
The modern English word heaven is derived from the earlier (
The further derivation of this form is uncertain. A connection to
Ancient Near East
Mesopotamia
The ancient Mesopotamians regarded the sky as a series of domes (usually three, but sometimes seven) covering the
In ancient Near Eastern cultures in general and in Mesopotamia in particular, humans had little to no access to the divine realm.
All souls went to the same afterlife,[15][17] and a person's actions during life had no impact on how he would be treated in the world to come.[15][17] Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that Inanna had the power to bestow special favors upon her devotees in the afterlife.[17][18] Despite the separation between heaven and earth, humans sought access to the gods through oracles and omens.[6] The gods were believed to live in Heaven,[6][19] but also in their temples, which were seen as the channels of communication between Earth and Heaven, which allowed mortal access to the gods.[6][20] The Ekur temple in Nippur was known as the "Dur-an-ki", the "mooring rope" of heaven and earth.[21] It was widely thought to have been built and established by Enlil himself.[7]
Hurrians and Hittites
The ancient
Canaanites
Almost nothing is known of Bronze Age (pre-1200 BC) Canaanite views of heaven and the archaeological findings at Ugarit (destroyed c. 1200 BC) have not provided information. The first century Greek author Philo of Byblos may have preserved elements of Iron Age Phoenician religion in his Sanchuniathon.[26]
Zoroastrians
Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian prophet who introduced the Gathas, spoke of the existence of Heaven and Hell.[27][28]
Historically, the unique features of Zoroastrianism, such as its conception of heaven, hell, angels, monotheism, belief in free will, and the day of judgement, among other concepts, may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including the Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Northern Buddhism, and Greek philosophy.[29][28]
Abrahamic and Abrahamic-inspired religions
Hebrew Bible
As in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, in the Hebrew Bible, the universe is commonly divided into two realms: heaven (šāmayim) and earth (’ereṣ).[6] Sometimes a third realm is added: either "sea",[30] "water under the earth",[31] or sometimes a vague "land of the dead" that is never described in depth.[32][6] The structure of heaven itself is not fully described in the Hebrew Bible,[33] but the fact that the Hebrew word šāmayim is plural has been interpreted by scholars as an indication that the ancient Israelites envisioned the heavens as having multiple layers, much like the ancient Mesopotamians.[33] This reading is also supported by the use of the phrase "heaven of heavens" in verses such as Deuteronomy 10:14,[34] 1 Kings 8:27,[35] and 2 Chronicles 2:6.[36][33]
In line with the typical view of most Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible depicts Heaven as a place that is inaccessible to humans.
The
Second Temple Judaism
During the period of the
Christianity
Descriptions of Heaven in the
Modern scholars agree that the Kingdom of God was an essential part of the teachings of the
Because God's Kingdom was believed to be superior to any human kingdom, this meant that God would necessarily drive out the Romans, who ruled Judea, and establish his own direct rule over the Jewish people.
Traditionally,
The
In the second century AD, Irenaeus of Lyons recorded a belief that, in accordance with John 14,[81] those who in the afterlife see the Saviour are in different mansions, some dwelling in the heavens, others in paradise and others in "the city".[82]
While the word used in all these writings, in particular the New Testament Greek word
Rabbinical Judaism
While the concept of Heaven (malkuth hashamaim מלכות השמים, the
Jewish writings[
The
Judaism holds that the
According to Nicholas de Lange, Judaism offers no clear teaching about the destiny which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after death has been expressed as follows: "For the future is inscrutable, and the accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or reason, or revelation, offer no clear guidance about what is to come. The only certainty is that each man must die – beyond that we can only guess."[85]
Islam
Similar to Jewish traditions such as the
One interpretation of "heavens" is that all the stars and galaxies (including the Milky Way) are part of the "first heaven", and "beyond that six still bigger worlds are there," which have yet to be discovered by scientists.[91]
According to Shi'ite sources, Ali mentioned the names of the seven heavens as below:[92]
- Rafi' (رفیع) the least heaven (سماء الدنیا)
- Qaydum (قیدوم)
- Marum (ماروم)
- Arfalun (أرفلون)
- Hay'oun (هيعون)
- Arous (عروس)
- Ajma' (عجماء)
Still an afterlife destination of the righteous is conceived in Islam as
Paradise is described primarily in physical terms as a place where every wish is immediately fulfilled when asked. Islamic texts describe immortal life in Jannah as happy, without
Quran verses which describe paradise include: 13:15, 18:31, 38:49–54, 35:33–35 and 52:17.[94]
The Quran refers to Jannah with different names:
Ahmadiyya
According to the Ahmadiyya view, much of the imagery presented in the Quran regarding Heaven, but also Hell, is metaphorical. They propound the verse which describes, according to them, how the life to come after death is different from the life on Earth. The Quran says: "From bringing in your place others like you, and from developing you into a form which at present you know not."[96] According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embryonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born in which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.[97]
Baháʼí Faith
The
For Baháʼís, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy.
The Baháʼí teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in the afterlife, where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those above. Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's development is not entirely dependent on its own conscious efforts, the nature of which we are not aware, but also augmented by the grace of God, the prayers of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of that person.[98]
Mandaeism
Mandaeans believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light).[101] The World of Light is the primeval, transcendent world from which Tibil and the World of Darkness emerged. The Great Living God (Hayyi Rabbi) and his uthras (angels or guardians) dwell in the World of Light. The World of Light is also the source of Piriawis, the Great Yardena (or Jordan River) of Life.[102]
Gnosticism
The cosmological description of the universe in the
Chinese religions
In the native
Heaven is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophies, and religions, and is on one end of the spectrum a synonym of Shangdi ("Supreme Deity") and on the other naturalistic end, a synonym for nature and the sky. The Chinese term for "heaven", Tian (天), derives from the name of the supreme deity of the Zhou dynasty. After their conquest of the Shang dynasty in 1122 BC, the Zhou people considered their supreme deity Tian to be identical with the Shang supreme deity Shangdi.[104] The Zhou people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes, evidenced in the etymology of the Chinese character for heaven or sky, which originally depicted a person with a large cranium. Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over all people. Heaven is affected by people's doings, and having personality, is happy and angry with them. Heaven blesses those who please it and sends calamities upon those who offend it.[105] Heaven was also believed to transcend all other spirits and gods, with Confucius asserting, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray."[105]
Other philosophers born around the time of Confucius such as Mozi took an even more theistic view of heaven, believing that heaven is the divine ruler, just as the Son of Heaven (the King of Zhou) is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and minor gods exist, but their function is merely to carry out the will of heaven, watching for evil-doers and punishing them. Thus they function as angels of heaven and do not detract from its monotheistic government of the world. With such a high monotheism, it is not surprising that Mohism championed a concept called "universal love" (jian'ai, 兼愛), which taught that heaven loves all people equally and that each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and those of others.[106] In Mozi's Will of Heaven (天志), he writes:
"I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present."
Original Chinese: 「且吾所以知天之愛民之厚者有矣,曰以磨為日月星辰,以昭道之;制為四時春秋冬夏,以紀綱之;雷降雪霜雨露,以長遂五穀麻絲,使民得而財利之;列為山川谿谷,播賦百事,以臨司民之善否;為王公侯伯,使之賞賢而罰暴;賊金木鳥獸,從事乎五穀麻絲,以為民衣食之財。自古及今,未嘗不有此也。」
Mozi, Will of Heaven, Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th Century BC
Indian religions
Buddhism
In Buddhism there are several heavens, all of which are still part of samsara (illusionary reality). Those who accumulate good karma may be reborn[107] in one of them. However, their stay in heaven is not eternal—eventually they will use up their good karma and will undergo rebirth into another realm, as a human, animal or other being. Because heaven is temporary and part of samsara, Buddhists focus more on escaping the cycle of rebirth and reaching enlightenment (nirvana). Nirvana is not a heaven but a mental state.
According to Buddhist cosmology the universe is impermanent and beings transmigrate through several existential "planes" in which this human world is only one "realm" or "path".[108] These are traditionally envisioned as a vertical continuum with the heavens existing above the human realm, and the realms of the animals, hungry ghosts and hell beings existing beneath it. According to Jan Chozen Bays in her book, Jizo: Guardian of Children, Travelers, and Other Voyagers, the realm of the asura is a later refinement of the heavenly realm and was inserted between the human realm and the heavens. One important Buddhist heaven is the Trāyastriṃśa, which resembles Olympus of Greek mythology.
In the Mahayana world view, there are also pure lands which lie outside this continuum and are created by the Buddhas upon attaining enlightenment. Rebirth in the pure land of Amitabha is seen as an assurance of Buddhahood, for once reborn there, beings do not fall back into cyclical existence unless they choose to do so to save other beings, the goal of Buddhism being the obtainment of enlightenment and freeing oneself and others from the birth-death cycle.
The
the concept has the name antarabhāva.The lists below are ordered from highest to lowest of the heavenly worlds.
Theravada
According to the Aṅguttara Nikāya
Here the denizens are Brahmās, and the ruler is Mahābrahmā. After developing the four Brahmavihāras, King Makhādeva rebirths here after death. The monk Tissa and Brāhmana Jānussoni were also reborn here.
The lifespan of a Brahmās is not stated but is not eternal.
Parinirmita-vaśavartin (Pali: Paranimmita-vasavatti)
The heaven of devas have "power over (others') creations". These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who seek their favor. The ruler of this world is called Vaśavartin (Pāli: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater beauty, more power and happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of his world. This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of a divine race) called Māra, who endeavors to keep all beings of the Kāmadhātu in the grip of sensual pleasures. Māra is also sometimes called Vaśavartin, but in general these two dwellers in this world are kept distinct. The beings of this world are 3 lǐ (1,400 m; 4,500 feet) tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition).
Nirmāṇarati (Pali: Nimmānaratī)
The world of devas "delighting in their creations". The devas of this world are capable of making any appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is called Sunirmita (Pāli Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth of
Tuṣita (Pali: Tusita)
The world of the "joyful" devas, it is best known for being the world in which a
The denizens here have a lifespan of 144,000,000 years.
Trāyastriṃśa (Pali: Tāvatimsa)
The ruler of this heaven is Indra or Shakra, and the realm is also called Trayatrimia. Each denizen addresses other denizens with the title "mārisa".
The governing hall of this heaven is called Sudhamma Hall. This heaven has a garden Nandanavana with damsels, as its most magnificent sight.
Ajita, the Licchavi army general, was reborn here. Gopika, the Sākyan girl, was reborn as a male god in this realm.
Any Buddhist reborn in this realm can outshine any of the previously dwelling denizens because of the extra merit acquired for following the Buddha's teachings. The denizens here have a lifespan of 36,000,000 years.
The heaven "of the Four Great Kings", its rulers are the four Great Kings of the name, Virūḍhaka विरुद्धक, Dhṛtarāṣṭra धृतराष्ट्र, Virūpākṣa विरुपाक्ष, and their leader
Mahayana
According to the Śūraṅgama Sūtra
The Form Realm: The First Dhyana, the Second Dhyana, the Third Dhyana and the Fourth Dhyana.
- The Third Dhyana
- The Heaven of Pervasive Purity
- Those for whom the world, the body, and the mind are all perfectly pure have accomplished the virtue of purity, and a superior level emerges. They return to the bliss of still extinction, and they are among those in the Heaven of Pervasive Purity
- The Heaven of Limitless Purity
- Those in whom the emptiness of purity manifests are led to discover its boundlessness. Their bodies and minds experience light ease, and they accomplish the bliss of still extinction. They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Purity.
- The Heaven of Lesser Purity
- The heavenly beings for whom the perfection of light has become sound and who further open out the sound to disclose its wonder discover a subtler level of practice. They penetrate to the bliss of still extinction and are among those in the Heaven of Lesser Purity.
- The Second Dhyana
- Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by worries or vexations. Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point that they have subdued their coarser outflows
- The Light-Sound Heaven
- Those who take in and hold the light to perfection accomplish the substance of the teaching. Creating and transforming the purity into endless responses and functions, they are among those in the Light-Sound Heaven.
- The Heaven of Limitless Light
- Those whose lights illumine each other in an endless dazzling blaze shine throughout the realms of the ten directions so that everything becomes like crystal. They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Light.
- The Heaven of Lesser Light
- Those beyond the Brahma heavens gather in and govern the Brahma beings, for their Brahma conduct is perfect and fulfilled. Unmoving and with settled minds, they produce light in profound stillness, and they are among those in the Heaven of Lesser Light.
- The First Dhyana
- Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by any suffering or affliction. Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point that they are not moved by outflows.
- The Great Brahma Heaven
- Those whose bodies and minds are wonderfully perfect, and whose awesome deportment is not in the least deficient, are pure in the prohibitive precepts and have a thorough understanding of them as well. At all times these people can govern the Brahma multitudes as great Brahma lords, and they are among those in the Great Brahma Heaven.
- The Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma
- Those whose hearts of desire have already been cast aside, the mind apart from desire manifests. They have a fond regard for the rules of discipline and delight in being in accord with them. These people can practice the Brahma virtue at all times, and they are among those in the Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma.
- The Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma
- Those in the world who cultivate their minds but do not avail themselves of dhyana and so have no wisdom, can only control their bodies so as to not engage in sexual desire. Whether walking or sitting, or in their thoughts, they are totally devoid of it. Since they do not give rise to defiling love, they do not remain in the realm of desire. These people can, in response to their thoughts, assume the bodies of Brahma beings. They are among those in the Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma.
The Heaven of the Comfort from Others’ Transformations
- Those who have no kind of worldly thoughts while doing what worldly people do, who are lucid and beyond such activity while involved in it, are capable at the end of their lives of entirely transcending states where transformations may be present and may be lacking. They are among those born in the Heaven of the Comfort from Others’ Transformations.
The Heaven of Bliss by Transformation
- Those who are devoid of desire, but who will engage in it for the sake of their partner, even though the flavor of doing so is like the flavor of chewing wax, are born at the end of their lives in a place of transcending transformations. They are among those born in the Heaven of Bliss by Transformation.
The Tushita Heaven
- Those who practice constant silence, but who are not yet able to control their impulses when stimulated by contact, ascend at the end of their lives to a subtle and ethereal place; they will not be drawn into the lower realms. The destruction of the realms of humans and gods and the obliteration of the kalpas by the three disasters will not reach them. They are among those born in the Tushita Heaven.
The Suyama Heaven
- Those who become temporarily involved when they meet with desire but who forget about it when it is finished. While in the human realm, one is less active and more quiet, abiding in light and emptiness where the illumination of sun and moon does not reach. By the end of their lives, these beings have their own light. They are among those born in the Suyama Heaven.
The Trayastrimsha Heaven
- Those whose sexual love for their wives is slight, but who have not yet obtained the entire flavor of dwelling in purity, transcend the light of the sun and moon at the end of their lives, and reside at the summit of the human realm. They are among those born in the Trayastrimsha Heaven.
The Heaven of the Four Kings
- Those with no interest in deviant sexual activity and develop a purity such that one produces light. When their life ends, they draw near to the sun and moon and are among those born in the Heaven of the Four Kings.
Ou Yi Zhixu[109] explains that the Shurangama sutra only emphasizes avoidance of deviant sexual desire, but one would naturally need to abide by the 10 good conducts to be born in these heavens.
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan literature classifies the heavenly worlds into 5 major types:
- Akanishtha or Ghanavyiiha
This is the most supreme heaven wherein beings that have achieved Nirvana live for eternity. - Heaven of the Jinas
- Heavens of Formless Spirits
These are 4 in number. - Brahmaloka
These are 16 in number, and are free from sensuality. - Devaloka
These are 6 in number, and contain sensuality.
Hinduism
Attaining heaven is not the final pursuit in Hinduism as heaven itself is ephemeral and related to physical body. Only being tied by the bhoot-tatvas, heaven cannot be perfect either and is just another name for pleasurable and mundane material life. According to
The concept of moksha is unique to Hinduism. Moksha stands for liberation from the cycle of birth and death and final communion with Brahman. With moksha, a liberated soul attains the stature and oneness with
In the
In the Nasadiya Sukta, the heavens/sky Vyoman is mentioned as a place from which an overseeing entity surveys what has been created. However, the Nasadiya Sukta questions the omniscience of this overseer.
Jainism
The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown at right. Unlike the current convention of using North direction as the top of map, this uses South as the top. The shape is similar to a part of human form standing upright.
The Deva Loka (heavens) are at the symbolic "chest", where all souls enjoying the positive karmic effects reside. The heavenly beings are referred to as devas (masculine form) and devis (feminine form). According to Jainism, there is not one heavenly abode, but several layers to reward appropriately the souls of varying degree of karmic merits. Similarly, beneath the "waist" are the Narka Loka (hell). Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on the middle.
The pure souls (who reached Siddha status) reside at the very south end (top) of the Universe. They are referred to in Tamil literature as தென்புலத்தார் (Kural 43).
Sikh religion
He claims to know the Lord, who is beyond measure and beyond thought; By mere words, he plans to enter heaven. I do not know where heaven is. Everyone claims that he plans to go there. By mere talk, the mind is not appeased. The mind is only appeased, when egotism is conquered. As long as the mind is filled with the desire for heaven, He does not dwell at the Lord's Feet. Says Kabeer, unto whom should I tell this? The Company of the Holy is heaven.
— Bhagat Kabir, Guru Granth Sahib 325 [112]
Mesoamerican religions
The
Polynesia
In the
Māori
In Māori mythology, the heavens are divided into a number of realms. Different tribes number the heaven differently, with as few as two and as many as fourteen levels. One of the more common versions divides heaven thus:
- Kiko-rangi, presided over by the gods Toumau
- Waka-maru, the heaven of sunshine and rain
- Nga-roto, the heaven of lakes where the god Maru rules
- Hauora, where the spirits of newborn children originate
- Nga-Tauira, home of the servant gods
- Nga-atua, which is ruled over by the hero Tawhaki
- Autoia, where human souls are created
- Aukumea, where spirits live
- Wairua, where spirit gods live while waiting on those in
- Naherangi or Tuwarea, where the great gods live presided over by Rehua
The Māori believe these heavens are supported by pillars. Other Polynesian peoples see them being supported by gods (as in Hawaii). In one Tahitian legend, heaven is supported by an octopus.
Paumotu, Tuamotus
The Polynesian conception of the universe and its division is nicely illustrated by a famous drawing made by a Tuomotuan chief in 1869. Here, the nine heavens are further divided into left and right, and each stage is associated with a stage in the evolution of the earth that is portrayed below. The lowest division represents a period when the heavens hung low over the earth, which was inhabited by animals that were not known to the islanders. In the third division is shown the first murder, the first burials, and the first canoes, built by Rata. In the fourth division, the first coconut tree and other significant plants are born.[114]
Theosophy
It is believed in
Criticism of the belief in heaven
Anarchist Emma Goldman expressed this view when she wrote, "Consciously or unconsciously, most theists see in gods and devils, heaven and hell, reward and punishment, a whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and contentment."[116]
Some have argued that a belief in a reward after death is poor motivation for moral behavior while alive.
Neuroscience
Many
In
Many people who come close to death and have near-death experiences report meeting relatives or entering "the Light" in an otherworldly dimension, which shares similarities with the religious concept of heaven. Even though there are also reports of distressing experiences and negative life-reviews, which share some similarities with the concept of hell, the positive experience of meeting or entering "the Light" is reported as an immensely intense feeling of a state of love, peace and joy beyond human comprehension. Together with this intensely positive-feeling state, people who have near-death experiences also report that consciousness or a heightened state of awareness seems as if it is at the heart of experiencing a taste of "heaven".[121]
Representations in arts
Works of fiction have included numerous conceptions of Heaven and Hell. The two most famous descriptions of Heaven are given in Dante Alighieri's Paradiso (of the Divine Comedy) and John Milton's Paradise Lost.
See also
References
Citations
- ^ "Life After Death Revealed – What Really Happens in the Afterlife". SSRF English. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
- ^ The Anglo-Saxons knew the concept of Paradise, which they expressed with words such as neorxnawang.
- ^ Barnhart (1995), p. 357.
- ^ a b Guus Kroonen: Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic (= Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, vol. 11). Brill, Leiden and Boston 2009, s. v. "Hemina- ~ *Hemna-". First published online: October 2010.
- ^ Gerhard Köbler, Altenglisches Wörterbuch. Fourth edition, online 2014 (in German), s. v. "heofon".
- ^ a b c d e f Hundley 2015, p. 452.
- ^ a b Black & Green 1992, p. 74.
- ^ Nemet-Nejat 1998, p. 180.
- ^ a b c d Nemet-Nejat 1998, p. 203.
- ^ a b c Lambert 2016, p. 118.
- ^ a b c d e f Hundley 2015, p. 451.
- ^ Stephens 2013.
- ^ Black & Green 1992, pp. 108–109.
- ^ a b Hundley 2015, pp. 451–452.
- ^ a b c d e Wright 2000, p. 29.
- ^ a b Lange, Tov & Weigold 2011, p. 808.
- ^ a b c d Choksi 2014.
- ^ Barret 2007, pp. 7–65.
- ^ Black & Green 1992, p. 94.
- ^ Black & Green 1992, p. 174.
- ^ Black & Green 1992, pp. 53, 74.
- ^ Harry A. Hoffner, Gary M. Beckman – 1990
- ^ Sabatino Moscati Face of the Ancient Orient 2001 Page 174 "The first, called 'Kingship in Heaven', tells how this kingship passes from Alalu to Anu, ... was king in heaven, Alalu was seated on the throne and the mighty Anu, first among the gods,"
- ^ Moscatti, Sabatino (1968), "The World of the Phoenicians" (Phoenix Giant)
- ISBN 9781850435334.
- ^ Attridge, Harold. W., and R. A. Oden, Jr. (1981), Philo of Byblos: The Phoenician History: Introduction, Critical Text, Translation, Notes, CBQMS 9 (Washington: D. C.: The Catholic Biblical Association of America).
- ^ Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (1993), "Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research". McGill-Queen's Press.
- ^ a b Farhang, Merh (2003) "The Zoroastrian Tradition: An Introduction to the Ancient Wisdom of Zarathushtras". Mazda Publishers.
- ^ Kriwackzek, Paul (2002), "In Search of Zarathustra". Vintage Books.
- ^ Bible, Exodus 20:11, Genesis 1:10.
- ^ Bible, Exodus 20:4, Deuteronomy 5:8.
- ^ Bible, Job 26:5, Psalm 139:8, Amos 9:2.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Hundley 2015, p. 453.
- ^ Bible, Deuteronomy 10:14.
- ^ a b Bible, 1 Kings 8:27.
- ^ Bible, 2 Chronicles 2:6 and 6:18.
- ^ Hundley 2015, pp. 452–453.
- ^ Bible, 1 Kings 22:19–23.
- ^ Bible, Job 1:6–12.
- ^ Bible, 2:1–6.
- ^ Bible, Isaiah 6.
- ^ Bible, Genesis 25:7–9, Deuteronomy 34:6, 1 Kings 2:10.
- ^ a b c d e Hundley 2015, p. 455.
- ^ Bible, Genesis 5:24.
- ^ Bible, 2 Kings 2:11.
- ^ Bible, Genesis 14:19, 22, 24:3, Psalm 146:6.
- ^ Bible, Psalm 102:26–27, Isaiah 13:5, 14:26, 24:18, 51:6, Jeremiah 4:23–28, and Zephaniah 1:2–3 and 18.
- ^ Hundley 2015, pp. 453–454.
- ^ Hundley 2015, p. 454.
- ^ a b c Wright 2000, pp. 98–138.
- ^ Wright 2000, pp. 115–117.
- ^ a b c d Sanders 1993, p. 170.
- ISBN 978-1-5011-3675-7.
More recently scholars have questioned a Persian derivation for the Jewish doctrine because of certain problems of dating. Some experts have undercut the entire thesis by pointing out that we actually do not have any Zoroastrian texts that support the idea of resurrection prior to its appearance in early Jewish writings. It is not clear who influenced whom. Even more significant, the timing does not make sense: Judah emerged from Persian rule in the fourth century BCE, when Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) swept through the eastern Mediterranean and defeated the Persian Empire. But the idea of bodily resurrection does not appear in Jewish texts for well over a century after that.
- ^ Hundley 2015, pp. 455–456.
- ^ a b Sanders 1993, p. 169.
- ^ Casey 2010, pp. 212–226.
- ISBN 080282501X. pp. 101–103.
- ^ Casey 2010, p. 213.
- ^ Casey 2010, pp. 213–214.
- ^ a b c Sanders 1993, p. 169–171.
- ^ a b c Casey 2010, p. 212.
- ^ Casey 2010, p. 214.
- ^ a b Casey 2010, pp. 215–216.
- ^ Bible, Matthew 6:10.
- ^ Bible, Luke 11:2.
- ^ Sanders 1993, p. 172.
- ^ Casey 2010, pp. 216–217.
- ^ Sanders 1993, pp. 170, 198–204.
- ^ Bible, Matthew 5–7.
- ^ Sanders 1993, pp. 198–204.
- ^ Bible, Mark 10:31, Matthew 19:30, Matthew 20:16, and Luke 13:30.
- ^ Sanders 1993, p. 196.
- ^ Bible, Mark 10:13–16, Matthew 19:30, and Luke 18:15–17.
- ^ Bible, Luke 16:19–31.
- ^ Bible, Matthew 20:1–16.
- ^ Bible, Matthew 22:1–10.
- ^ Bible, Luke 15:11–32.
- ^ Sanders 1993, pp. 196–198.
- ^ a b "21 July 1999 – John Paul II". Retrieved 31 December 2016.
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- ^ Bible, John 14:2.
- ^ "Irenaeus, Adversus haereses, book V, chapter XXXVI, 1–2".
- ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "A Greek-English Lexicon, οὐρα^νός". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Tufts University.
- ^ "G3772 οὐρανός – Strong's Greek Lexicon".
- ^ a b c d Nicholas de Lange, Judaism, Oxford University Press, 1986.
- ISBN 9780805210590. "The Sadducees... did not believe in an afterlife. The Pharisees... subscribed to the theory of the afterlife."
- ^ Pirkei Avot, 4:21.
- ISBN 9780805210590. "According to the rabbis, the righteous receive their reward in the afterlife in the celestial Garden of Eden... This applies equally to Jews and non-Jews."
- ISBN 81-87385-07-3.
- ^ Abdullah, Yusuf Ali (1946). The Holy Qur-an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Qatar National Printing Press. p. 1139, n. 3814.
- ^ "What Is Meant By ‘Seven Heavens’?," Al-Islam.org.
- ^ Al-Burhan fi Tafsir Al-Qur'an, V 5, p. 415.
- ^ Quran 13:35.
- ^ Quran 13:35, 18:31, 38:49-54, 35:33-35, 52:17–27.
- ^ Sunan Ibn Majah Vol. 5, Book 37, Hadith 4331.
- ^ Quran 56:61.
- ISBN 978-1-85372-562-3.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-85168-074-0.
- ISBN 978-0-87743-187-9. Retrieved 2016-03-28.
- ISBN 978-0-87743-187-9. Retrieved 2016-03-28.
- ^ Nashmi, Yuhana (24 April 2013), "Contemporary Issues for the Mandaean Faith", Mandaean Associations Union, retrieved 2 February 2022.
- ^ Aldihisi, Sabah (2008). The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba (PhD). University College London.
- ^ Marvin Meyer; Willis Barnstone (2009). "On the Origin of the World". The Gnostic Bible. Shambhala. Retrieved 2022-02-03.
- ^ Herrlee Creel, "The Origin of the Deity T'ien" (1970), pp. 493–506.
- ^ a b Joseph Shih, "The Notion of God in the Ancient Chinese Religion," Numen, Vol. 16, Fasc. 2, pp. 99–138, Brill, 1969.
- ^ Homer Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West, Vol 9, No 3/4, pp 163–172, University of Hawaii Press: 1960.
- anatta.
- ^ "The Jivamala – Salvation Versus Liberation, The Limitations of the Paradise or Heavenly Worlds". www.many-lives.com.
- ^ "大佛顶如来密因修证了义诸菩萨万行首楞严经文句(文句卷第八)".
- ISBN 9780765612212.
- ISBN 978-8-1714-2754-3.
- ^ "Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib". www.srigranth.org.
- ISBN 0-313-25890-2. P. 57.
- ^ Young, J. L. "The Paumotu Conception of the Heavens and of Creation", Journal of the Polynesian Society, 28 (1919), pp. 209–211.
- Leadbeater, C.W.Outline of Theosophy. Wheaton, Illinois, US. 1915 Theosophical Publishing House.
- ^ Goldman, Emma. "The Philosophy of Atheism, an essay by Emma Goldman (1916)". dwardmac.pitzer.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
- ^ The Atheist Philosophy Archived January 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Einstein, Albert. "A man's ethical behavior should be based effectually on sympathy, education, and social ties; no religious basis is necessary. Man would indeed be in a poor way if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and hope of reward after death". www.quotedb.com. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
- Sam Harris at the 2006 Beyond Belief conference (watch here Archived May 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine).
- OCLC 23648691.
- ^
Jorgensen, Rene. Awakening After Life. BookSurge, 2007 ISBN 1-4196-6347-X.
General and cited references
- Barret, C. E. (2007). "Was dust their food and clay their bread?: Grave goods, the Mesopotamian afterlife, and the liminal role of Inana/Ištar". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions. 7 (1): 7–65. ISSN 1569-2116.
- Challoner, Richard (1801). . Think Well On't or, Reflections on the great truths of the Christian religion for every day of the month. T. Haydock.
- Cochem, Martin of (1899). . The four last things: death, judgment, hell, heaven. Benziger Brothers.
- Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992). Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. London, England: The British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-1705-8.
- ISBN 978-0-567-64517-3.
- Choksi, M. (2014). "Ancient Mesopotamian Beliefs in the Afterlife". World History Encyclopedia.
- Hundley, Michael B. (2015). "Heaven and Earth". In Balentine, Samuel E. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Theology. Vol. 1: ABR–JUS. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 451–457. ISBN 978-0-19-023994-7.
- Lambert, W. G. (2016). George, A. R.; Oshima, T. M. (eds.). Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology: Selected Essays. Orientalische Religionen in der Antike. Vol. 15. Tuebingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. p. 118. ISBN 978-3-16-153674-8.
- Lange, Armin; Tov, Emanuel; Weigold, Matthias (2011). The Dead Sea Scrolls in Context: Integrating the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Study of Ancient Texts, Languages, and Cultures. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18903-4.
- Liguori, Alphonus (1868). . Preparation For Death. Rivingtons.
- Liguori, Alphonus (1882). . Sermons for all the Sundays in the year. Dublin, Ireland.
- ISBN 978-0-631-23354-1.
- ISBN 978-0313294976.
- ISBN 978-0-691-00684-0.
- ISBN 978-0-14-014499-4.
- Stephens, Kathryn (2013). "An/Anu (god): Mesopotamian sky-god, one of the supreme deities; known as An in Sumerian and Anu in Akkadian". Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses. University of Pennsylvania Museum.
- Wright, J. Edward (2000). The Early History of Heaven. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-15230-2.
External links
- Heaven on In Our Time at the BBC, UK
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Heaven
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Heaven
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on heaven and hell
- Heaven: A fool's paradise, The Independent, April 21, 2010
- Maps of heaven at the "Hell and heaven" subject, the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library, New York
- Collection: Heaven, Hell, and Afterlives from the University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor, Michigan