Heian period
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The Heian period (平安時代, Heian jidai) is the last division of classical
Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the real power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, a powerful aristocratic family who had intermarried with the imperial family. Many emperors had mothers from the Fujiwara family.[2] The economy mostly existed through barter and trade, while the shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite. Even though the Heian period was one of national peace, the government failed to effectively police the territory, leading to frequent robberies of travellers.
History
The Heian period was preceded by the
Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact, power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara, and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period.[2] As early as 939 AD, Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the shogunate.
The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the
Fujiwara regency
When Emperor Kammu moved the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyoto), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years, he did so not only to strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government geopolitically. Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist institutions there.[5] Kyoto had good river access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period (784–967) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Chang'an,[6] as was Nara, but on a larger scale than Nara. Kammu endeavored to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use.[7] Known as the Ritsuryō Code, this system attempted to recreate the Tang legal system in Japan, despite the "tremendous differences in the levels of development between the two countries".[8] Despite the decline of the Taika–Taihō reforms, the imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Kammu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors.
Although Kammu had abandoned universal conscription in 792, he still waged major military offensives to subjugate the
Following Kammu's death in 806 and a succession struggle among his sons, two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the
As the
Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.
Within decades of Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional institutions, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara clan's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators".
Despite their usurpation of imperial authority, the Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and
As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of shōen development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new lands and the granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house governments", as in the old clan system. In fact, the form of the old clan system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized government. New institutions were now needed in the face of social, economic, and political changes. The Taihō Code lapsed, its institutions relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more from strong family solidarity and a lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation.
Rise of the military class
Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength. The re-establishment of an efficient military system was made gradually through a process of trial-and-error. At that time the imperial court did not possess an army but rather relied on an organization of professional warriors composed mainly of oryoshi, which were appointed to an individual province and tsuibushi, which were appointed over imperial circuits or for specific tasks. This gave rise to the Japanese military class. Nonetheless, final authority rested with the imperial court.[10]
Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in the ninth century, military service became part of shōen life. Not only the shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite of samurai.
Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.
A decline in food production, the growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families—all of whom had descended from the imperial family—attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally upset the peace.
The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of
The In-no-chō filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto clan. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the In-no-chō and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government.
A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power.
Taira no Kiyomori emerged as the real power in Japan following the Fujiwara's destruction, and he would remain in command for the next 20 years. He gave his daughter
The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces,[
With Yoritomo firmly established, the bakufu system that governed Japan for the next seven centuries was in place. He appointed military governors, or
Culture
Developments in Buddhism
The Heian period saw the rise of two esoteric Buddhist sects, Tendai and Shingon.
Tendai is the Japanese version of the Tiantai school from China, which is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important sutras in Mahayana Buddhism. It was brought to Japan by the monk Saichō. An important element of Tendai doctrine was the suggestion that enlightenment was accessible to "every creature".[11] Saichō also sought independent ordination for Tendai monks.[12] A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. Emperor Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries.
Shingon is the Japanese version of the Zhenyen school from China, which is based on Vajrayana Buddhism. It was brought to Japan by the monk Kūkai. Shingon Buddhism emphasizes the use of symbols, rituals, incantations and mandalas, which gave it a wide appeal.[13] Kūkai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Both Kūkai and Saichō aimed to connect state and religion and establish support from the aristocracy, leading to the notion of "aristocratic Buddhism".[14][15]
Literature
Although written
Poetry, in particular, was a staple of court life. Nobles and ladies-in-waiting were expected to be well versed in the art of writing poetry as a mark of their status. Every occasion could call for the writing of a verse, from the birth of a child to the coronation of an emperor, or even a pretty scene of nature. A well-written poem could easily make or break one's reputation, and often was a key part of social interaction.
The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, Kimigayo, were written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, which was extremely important to the Heian court, and one of the first novels ever written. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival Sei Shōnagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in the Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the 990s, which revealed the quotidian capital lifestyle.[18] The Heian period produced a flowering of poetry including works of Ariwara no Narihira, Ono no Komachi, Izumi Shikibu, Murasaki Shikibu, Saigyō and Fujiwara no Teika. The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha (いろは), of uncertain authorship, was also written during the Heian period.
Beauty
During the Heian period, beauty was widely considered an important part of what made one a "good" person. In cosmetic terms, aristocratic men and women powdered their faces and blackened their teeth, the latter termed ).
Women cultivated shiny, black flowing hair and a courtly woman's formal dress included a complex "twelve-layered robe" called jūnihitoe, though the actual number of layers varied. Costumes were determined by office and season, with a woman's robes, in particular, following a system of color combinations representing flowers, plants, and animals specific to a season or month, (see the Japanese Wikipedia entries irome and kasane-no-irome).[19]
Economics
While the Heian period was an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants. The control of rice fields provided a key source of income for families such as the Fujiwara and was a fundamental base of their power.
The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travelers. This is implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in the main characters. The
Events
- 784: Emperor Kammu moves the capital to Nagaoka-kyō (Kyōto)
- 794: Emperor Kammu moves the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto)
- 804: The Buddhist monk Saichō (Dengyo Daishi) introduces the Tendai school
- 806: The monk Shingon(Tantric) school
- 819: Kūkai founds the monastery of Mount Kōya, in the northeast portion of modern-day Wakayama Prefecture
- 858: Emperor Seiwa begins the rule of the Fujiwara clan[23]
- 895: imperial embassies to China
- 990: Pillow Bookessays
- 1000–1008: Murasaki Shikibu writes The Tale of Genji novel
- 1050: Rise of the military class (samurai)[citation needed]
- 1052: The Byōdō-in temple (near Kyōto) is built by Fujiwara no Yorimichi[24]
- 1068: Emperor Go-Sanjō overthrows the Fujiwara clan
- 1087: Emperor Shirakawa abdicates and becomes a Buddhist monk, the first of the "cloistered emperors" (insei)
- 1156: Taira no Kiyomori defeats the Minamoto clan and seizes power, thereby ending the "insei" era[25]
- 1180 (June): The capital is moved to Fukuhara-kyō (Kobe)
- 1180 (November): The capital is moved back to Heian-kyō (Kyōto)
- 1185: Taira is defeated (shōgunof Japan, while the emperor (or "mikado") becomes a figurehead
Modern depictions
The iconography of the Heian period is widely known in Japan, and depicted in various media, from traditional festivals to anime. Various festivals feature Heian dress – most notably Hinamatsuri (doll festival), where the dolls wear Heian dress, but also numerous other festivals, such as Aoi Matsuri in Kyoto (May) and Saiō Matsuri in Meiwa, Mie (June), both of which feature the jūnihitoe 12-layer dress. Traditional horseback archery (yabusame) festivals, which date from the beginning of the Kamakura period (immediately following the Heian period) feature similar dress.
Video games
- Cosmology of Kyoto is a 1993 Japanese video game set in 10th–11th-century Japan. It is a point-and-click adventure game depicting Heian-kyō, including the religious beliefs, folklore, and ghost tales of the time.
- PS2set in the Heian period.
- The 2011 video game Total War: Shogun 2 has the Rise of the Samurai expansion pack as a downloadable campaign. It allows the player to make their own version of the Genpei War which happened during the Heian period. The player is able to choose one of the most powerful families of Japan at the time, the Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara.
- Nioh 2, a 2020 video game, released three DLC expansions that had its main protagonist time travel to key moments in the Heian period to aid Minamoto no Yoshitsune and Minamoto no Yorimitsu.
References
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica.dsa
- ^ a b Seal.
- ^ Shively and McCullough 1999.
- ^ Ancient Japan.
- ^ Hurst 2007 p. 32
- ^ Takei and Keane 2001 p. 10.
- ^ Hurst 2007 p. 34.
- ^ Hurst 2007 p. 35.
- ^ Meyer p. 44.
- ^ Friday 1988 pp. 155–170.
- ^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 60.
- ^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 61.
- ^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 65.
- ^ Weinstein 1999.
- ^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 59.
- ^ Morris 1964 pp. 180, 182.
- ^ Morris 1964 pp. 183–184.
- ^ Morris 1964 p. xiv.
- ^ Toby 2009 p. 31.
- ^ a b Morris 1964 p. 73.
- ^ Morris 1964 p. 79.
- ^ a b Collins 1997 p. 851.
- ^ Ponsonby-Fane 1962 pp. 203–204; also known as Fujiwara jidai.
- ^ Britannica Kokusai Dai-Hyakkajiten.
- ^ Ponsonby-Fane 1962 p. 204.
Bibliography
- Ancient Japan. US: Captivating History. 2019. ISBN 978-1799090069.
- Collins, R., "An Asian Route to Capitalism: Religious Economy and the Origins of Self-Transforming Growth in Japan", in American Sociological Review, Vol. 62, No. 6 (1997)
- Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Fox Sorceress. Cauldron Publications, 2009.
- Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Storm God. Cauldron Publications, 2011.
- JSTOR 2384742.
- "Fujiwara no Yorimichi" in Britannica Kokusai Dai-Hyakkajiten.
- "Heian period". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- Hurst III, G. C, "The Heian Period" in W. M. Tsutsui, (ed.), A Companion to Japanese History (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007)
- Kitagawa, J., Religion in Japanese History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966)
- Meyer, Milton W., Japan: A Concise History
- Morris, I., The World of the Shining Prince; Court Life in Ancient Japan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964)
- Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1962). Sovereign and Subject
- Seal, F. W. Heian Period Court and Clan Archived 2019-12-28 at the Wayback Machine
- Shively, D. H. and McCullough W. H., "Introduction" in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.), The Cambridge History of Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
- Takei, Jiro; Keane, Marc P. (2001). Sakuteiki. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-3294-6.
- Toby, Slade (2009). Japanese fashion : a cultural history (English ed.). Oxford: Berg. OCLC 719377495.
- Weinstein, S., "Aristocratic Buddhism" in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge History of Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)