Hellenistic period
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In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII (30 BC),[1] followed by the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year.[2][3] The Ancient Greek word Hellas (Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was gradually recognized as the name for Greece, from which the word Hellenistic was derived.[4] "Hellenistic" is distinguished from "Hellenic" in that the latter refers to Greece itself, while the former encompasses all ancient territories under Greek influence, in particular the East after the conquests of Alexander the Great.
After the
During the Hellenistic period, Greek cultural influence and power reached its peak in the Mediterranean and beyond. Prosperity and progress in the
Scholars and historians are divided as to which event signals the end of the Hellenistic era. Proposals include the final conquest of the Greek heartlands by Rome in 146 BC following the Achaean War, the final defeat of the Ptolemaic Kingdom at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the move by Roman emperor Constantine the Great of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople in AD 330.[8][9] Angelos Chaniotis ends the Hellenistic period with the death of Hadrian in AD 138, who integrated the Greeks fully into the Roman Empire, though a range from c. 321 BC to AD 256 may also be given.[10][11]
Etymology
The word originated from ancient Greek Ἑλληνιστής (Hellēnistḗs, "one who uses the Greek language"), from Ἑλλάς (Hellás, "Greece"); as if "Hellenist" + "ic".[citation needed]
The idea of a Hellenistic period is a 19th-century concept, and did not exist in
The major issue with the term Hellenistic lies in its convenience, as the spread of Greek culture was not the generalized phenomenon that the term implies. Some areas of the conquered world were more affected by Greek influences than others. The term Hellenistic also implies that the Greek populations were of majority in the areas in which they settled, but in many cases, the Greek settlers were actually the minority among the native populations. The Greek population and the native population did not always mix; the Greeks moved and brought their own culture, but interaction did not always occur.[citation needed]
Sources
While a few fragments exist, there are no complete surviving historical works that date to the hundred years following Alexander's death. The works of the major Hellenistic historians Hieronymus of Cardia (who worked under Alexander, Antigonus I and other successors), Duris of Samos and Phylarchus, which were used by surviving sources, are all lost.[16] The earliest and most credible surviving source for the Hellenistic period is Polybius of Megalopolis (c. 200–118), a statesman of the Achaean League until 168 BC when he was forced to go to Rome as a hostage.[16] His Histories eventually grew to a length of forty books, covering the years 220 to 167 BC.
The most important source after
Other sources include
Background
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Early rule
Conquest of the Persian Empire
Expedition into India
Death and legacy
Cultural impact
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Ancient Greece had traditionally been a fractious collection of fiercely independent city-states. After the
Philip II was a strong and expansionist king who took every opportunity to expand Macedonian territory. In 352 BC he annexed Thessaly and Magnesia. In 338 BC, Philip defeated a combined Theban and Athenian army at the Battle of Chaeronea after a decade of desultory conflict. In the aftermath, Philip formed the League of Corinth, effectively bringing the majority of Greece under his direct sway. He was elected Hegemon of the league, and a campaign against the Achaemenid Empire of Persia was planned. However in 336 BC, while this campaign was in its early stages, he was assassinated.[18]
Succeeding his father, Alexander took over the Persian war himself. During a decade of campaigning, Alexander
After his death, the huge territories Alexander had conquered became subject to a strong Greek influence (
It can be argued that some of the changes across the
In addition, much of the area conquered would continue to be ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's generals and successors. Initially the whole empire was divided among them; however, some territories were lost relatively quickly, or only remained nominally under Macedonian rule. After 200 years, only much reduced and rather degenerate states remained,[9] until the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt by Rome.
The Diadochi
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When Alexander the Great died (10 June 323 BC), he left behind a sprawling empire which was composed of many essentially autonomous territories called satraps. Without a chosen successor there were immediate disputes among his generals as to who should be king of Macedon. These generals became known as the Diadochi (Greek: Διάδοχοι, Diadokhoi, meaning "Successors").
Meleager and the infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, while Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's child by Roxana. After the infantry stormed the palace of Babylon, a compromise was arranged – Arrhidaeus (as Philip III) should become king and should rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it was, becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself would become regent (epimeletes) of the empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered and assumed full control.[20] The generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the empire, but Perdiccas' position was shaky, because, as Arrian writes, "everyone was suspicious of him, and he of them".[21]
The first of the
The second Diadochi war began following the death of Antipater in 319 BC. Passing over his own son, Cassander, Antipater had declared Polyperchon his successor as Regent.[23] Cassander rose in revolt against Polyperchon (who was joined by Eumenes) and was supported by Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy. In 317 BC, Cassander invaded Macedonia, attaining control of Macedon, sentencing Olympias to death and capturing the boy king Alexander IV, and his mother. In Asia, Eumenes was betrayed by his own men after years of campaign and was given up to Antigonus who had him executed.
The third war of the Diadochi broke out because of the growing power and ambition of Antigonus. He began removing and appointing satraps as if he were king and also raided the royal treasuries in Ecbatana, Persepolis and Susa, making off with 25,000 talents.[24] Seleucus was forced to flee to Egypt and Antigonus was soon at war with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. He then invaded Phoenicia, laid siege to Tyre, stormed Gaza and began building a fleet. Ptolemy invaded Syria and defeated Antigonus' son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, in the Battle of Gaza of 312 BC which allowed Seleucus to secure control of Babylonia, and the eastern satrapies. In 310 BC, Cassander had young King Alexander IV and his mother Roxana murdered, ending the Argead dynasty which had ruled Macedon for several centuries.
Antigonus then sent his son
The decisive engagement of the war came when Lysimachus invaded and overran much of western Anatolia, but was soon isolated by Antigonus and Demetrius near Ipsus in Phrygia. Seleucus arrived in time to save Lysimachus and utterly crushed Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Seleucus' war elephants proved decisive, Antigonus was killed, and Demetrius fled back to Greece to attempt to preserve the remnants of his rule there by recapturing a rebellious Athens. Meanwhile, Lysimachus took over Ionia, Seleucus took Cilicia, and Ptolemy captured Cyprus.
After Cassander's death in c. 298 BC, however, Demetrius, who still maintained a sizable loyal army and fleet, invaded Macedon, seized the Macedonian throne (294 BC) and conquered
At this point the tripartite territorial division of the Hellenistic age was in place, with the main Hellenistic powers being
Southern Europe
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Kingdom of Epirus
In 281 Pyrrhus (nicknamed "the eagle", aetos) invaded southern Italy to aid the city state of Tarentum. Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in the Battle of Heraclea and at the Battle of Asculum. Though victorious, he was forced to retreat due to heavy losses, hence the term "Pyrrhic victory". Pyrrhus then turned south and invaded Sicily but was unsuccessful and returned to Italy. After the Battle of Beneventum (275 BC) Pyrrhus lost all his Italian holdings and left for Epirus.
Kingdom of Macedon
Antigonus II ruled until his death in 239 BC. His son
Philip V, who came to power when Doson died in 221 BC, was the last Macedonian ruler with both the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the "cloud rising in the west": the ever-increasing power of Rome. He was known as "the darling of Hellas". Under his auspices the Peace of Naupactus (217 BC) brought the latest war between Macedon and the Greek leagues (the Social War of 220–217 BC) to an end, and at this time he controlled all of Greece except Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum.
In 215 BC Philip, with his eye on Illyria, formed an alliance with Rome's enemy Hannibal of Carthage, which led to Roman alliances with the Achaean League, Rhodes and Pergamum. The First Macedonian War broke out in 212 BC, and ended inconclusively in 205 BC. Philip continued to wage war against Pergamum and Rhodes for control of the Aegean (204–200 BC) and ignored Roman demands for non-intervention in Greece by invading Attica. In 198 BC, during the Second Macedonian War Philip was decisively defeated at Cynoscephalae by the Roman proconsul Titus Quinctius Flamininus and Macedon lost all its territories in Greece proper. Southern Greece was now thoroughly brought into the Roman sphere of influence, though it retained nominal autonomy. The end of Antigonid Macedon came when Philip V's son, Perseus, was defeated and captured by the Romans in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).
Rest of Greece
During the Hellenistic period the importance of
Independent city states were unable to compete with Hellenistic kingdoms and were usually forced to ally themselves to one of them for defense, giving honors to Hellenistic rulers in return for protection. One example is
Other
One of the few city states who managed to maintain full independence from the control of any Hellenistic kingdom was
Initially Rhodes had very close ties with the Ptolemaic kingdom. Rhodes later became a Roman ally against the Seleucids, receiving some territory in
Balkans
The west
The
After 278 BC the Odrysians had a strong competitor in the
, but in 212 BC they conquered their enemies and destroyed their capital.Western Mediterranean
The city of
Hellenistic Near East
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The Hellenistic states of
Ptolemaic Kingdom
The
Under
Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the
Seleucid Empire
Following division of
The vast Seleucid Empire was, like Egypt, mostly dominated by a Greco-Macedonian political elite.
Much of the eastern part of the empire was then conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC, yet the Seleucid kings continued to rule a rump state from Syria until the invasion by the Armenian king Tigranes the Great and their ultimate overthrow by the Roman general Pompey.
Attalid Pergamum
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The Pergamon Altar, Smarthistory[72] |
After the death of
Galatia
The
After their defeats by Pergamon and Rome the Galatians slowly became Hellenized and they were called "Gallo-Graeci" by the historian Justin[75] as well as Ἑλληνογαλάται (Hellēnogalátai) by Diodorus Siculus in his Bibliotheca historica v.32.5, who wrote that they were "called Helleno-Galatians because of their connection with the Greeks."[76]
Bithynia
The Bithynians were a Thracian people living in northwest Anatolia. After Alexander's conquests the region of
Nabatean Kingdom
The
Cappadocia
In 255 BC, Ariarathes III took the title of king and married Stratonice, a daughter of Antiochus II, remaining an ally of the Seleucid kingdom. Under Ariarathes IV, Cappadocia came into relations with Rome, first as a foe espousing the cause of
Armenia
Orontid Armenia formally passed to the empire of Alexander the Great following his conquest of Persia. Alexander appointed an Orontid named Mithranes to govern Armenia. Armenia later became a vassal state of the Seleucid Empire, but it maintained a considerable degree of autonomy, retaining its native rulers. Towards the end 212 BC the country was divided into two kingdoms, Greater Armenia and Armenia Sophene, including Commagene or Armenia Minor. The kingdoms became so independent from Seleucid control that Antiochus III the Great waged war on them during his reign and replaced their rulers.
After the Seleucid defeat at the
Parthia
During the reign of
The Hellenistic influence in Iran was significant in terms of scope, but not depth and durability—unlike the Near East, the Iranian–Zoroastrian ideas and ideals remained the main source of inspiration in mainland Iran, and was soon revived in late Parthian and Sasanian periods.[82]
Judea
During the Hellenistic period,
Between 301 and 219 BC the Ptolemies ruled Judea in relative peace, and Jews often found themselves working in the Ptolemaic administration and army, which led to the rise of a Hellenized Jewish elite class (e.g. the
Modern interpretations see this period as a civil war between Hellenized and orthodox forms of Judaism.
Kingdom of Pontus
The
The kingdom grew to its largest extent under
Other realms
Greco-Bactrians
The Greek kingdom of Bactria began as a breakaway satrapy of the Seleucid empire, which, because of the size of the empire, had significant freedom from central control. Between 255 and 246 BC, the governor of
According to
Indo-Greek kingdoms
The separation of the
After Demetrius' death, civil wars between Bactrian kings in India allowed Apollodotus I (from c. 180/175 BC) to make himself independent as the first proper Indo-Greek king (who did not rule from Bactria). Large numbers of his coins have been found in India, and he seems to have reigned in Gandhara as well as western Punjab. Apollodotus I was succeeded by or ruled alongside Antimachus II, likely the son of the Bactrian king Antimachus I.[89] In about 155 (or 165) BC he seems to have been succeeded by the most successful of the Indo-Greek kings, Menander I. Menander converted to Buddhism, and seems to have been a great patron of the religion; he is remembered in some Buddhist texts as 'Milinda'. He also expanded the kingdom further east into Punjab, though these conquests were rather ephemeral.[citation needed]
After the death of Menander (c. 130 BC), the Kingdom appears to have fragmented, with several 'kings' attested contemporaneously in different regions. This inevitably weakened the Greek position, and territory seems to have been lost progressively. Around 70 BC, the western regions of Arachosia and Paropamisadae were lost to tribal invasions, presumably by those tribes responsible for the end of the Bactrian kingdom. The resulting Indo-Scythian kingdom seems to have gradually pushed the remaining Indo-Greek kingdom towards the east. The Indo-Greek kingdom appears to have lingered on in western Punjab until about AD 10, at which time it was finally ended by the Indo-Scythians.[citation needed] Strato III was the last of the dynasty of Diodotus was the last of the line of Diodotus and independent Hellenistic king to rule at his death in 10 AD.[90][91]
After conquering the Indo-Greeks, the
Several references in Indian literature praise the knowledge of the
Rise of Rome
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Widespread Roman interference in the Greek world was probably inevitable given the general manner of the ascendancy of the Roman Republic. This Roman-Greek interaction began as a consequence of the Greek city-states located along the coast of southern Italy. Rome had come to dominate the Italian peninsula, and desired the submission of the Greek cities to its rule. Although they initially resisted, allying themselves with Pyrrhus of Epirus, and defeating the Romans at several battles, the Greek cities were unable to maintain this position and were absorbed by the Roman republic. Shortly afterward, Rome became involved in Sicily, fighting against the Carthaginians in the First Punic War. The result was the complete conquest of Sicily, including its previously powerful Greek cities, by the Romans.
After the
In less than twenty years, Rome had destroyed the power of one of the successor states, crippled another, and firmly entrenched its influence over Greece. This was primarily a result of the over-ambition of the Macedonian kings, and their unintended provocation of Rome, though Rome was quick to exploit the situation. In another twenty years, the Macedonian kingdom was no more. Seeking to re-assert Macedonian power and Greek independence, Philip V's son
The Attalid dynasty of Pergamum lasted little longer; a Roman ally until the end, its final king
Eventually, instability in the near east resulting from the power vacuum left by the collapse of the Seleucid Empire caused the Roman
Hellenistic culture
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Spread
Greek culture was at its height of world influence in the Hellenistic period. Hellenism or at least Philhellenism reached most regions on the frontiers of the Hellenistic kingdoms. Though some of these regions were not ruled by Greeks or even Greek speaking elites, Hellenistic influence can be seen in the historical record and material culture of these regions. Other regions had established contact with Greek colonies before this period, and simply saw a continued process of Hellenization and intermixing.[97][98]
The spread of Greek culture and language throughout the Near East and Asia owed much to the development of newly founded cities and deliberate
Institutions
In some fields Hellenistic culture thrived, particularly in its preservation of the past. The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories.[101] The preservation of many classical and archaic works of art and literature (including the works of the three great classical tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides) are due to the efforts of the Hellenistic Greeks. The museum and library of Alexandria was the center of this conservationist activity. With the support of royal stipends, Alexandrian scholars collected, translated, copied, classified, and critiqued every book they could find. Most of the great literary figures of the Hellenistic period studied at Alexandria and conducted research there. They were scholar poets, writing not only poetry but treatises on Homer and other archaic and classical Greek literature.[102]
Athens retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries and philosophical schools.[103] Alexandria had the monumental museum (a research center) and Library of Alexandria which was estimated to have had 700,000 volumes.[103] The city of Pergamon also had a large library and became a major center of book production.[103] The island of Rhodes had a library and also boasted a famous finishing school for politics and diplomacy. Libraries were also present in Antioch, Pella, and Kos. Cicero was educated in Athens and Mark Antony in Rhodes.[103] Antioch was founded as a metropolis and center of Greek learning which retained its status into the era of Christianity.[103] Seleucia replaced Babylon as the metropolis of the lower Tigris.
The identification of local gods with similar Greek deities, a practice termed '
Hellenization and acculturation
The concept of Hellenization, meaning the adoption of Greek culture in non-Greek regions, has long been controversial. Undoubtedly Greek influence did spread through the Hellenistic realms, but to what extent, and whether this was a deliberate policy or mere cultural diffusion, have been hotly debated.
It seems likely that Alexander himself pursued policies which led to Hellenization, such as the foundations of new cities and Greek colonies. While it may have been a deliberate attempt to spread Greek culture (or as Arrian says, "to civilise the natives"), it is more likely that it was a series of pragmatic measures designed to aid in the rule of his enormous empire.
After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the influx of Greek colonists into the new realms continued to spread Greek culture into Asia. The founding of new cities and military colonies continued to be a major part of the Successors' struggle for control of any particular region, and these continued to be centers of cultural diffusion. The spread of Greek culture under the Successors seems mostly to have occurred with the spreading of Greeks themselves, rather than as an active policy.
Throughout the Hellenistic world, these Greco-Macedonian colonists considered themselves by and large superior to the native "barbarians" and excluded most non-Greeks from the upper echelons of courtly and government life. Most of the native population was not Hellenized, had little access to Greek culture and often found themselves discriminated against by their Hellenic overlords.
Hellenistic art nevertheless had a considerable influence on the cultures that had been affected by the Hellenistic expansion. As far as the Indian subcontinent, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was broad and far-reaching, and had effects for several centuries following the forays of Alexander the Great.
Despite their initial reluctance, the Successors seem to have later deliberately naturalized themselves to their different regions, presumably in order to help maintain control of the population.). The Greeks in the regions therefore gradually become 'localized', adopting local customs as appropriate. In this way, hybrid 'Hellenistic' cultures naturally emerged, at least among the upper echelons of society.
The trends of Hellenization were therefore accompanied by Greeks adopting native ways over time, but this was widely varied by place and by social class. The farther away from the Mediterranean and the lower in social status, the more likely that a colonist was to adopt local ways, while the Greco-Macedonian elites and royal families usually remained thoroughly Greek and viewed most non-Greeks with disdain. It was not until
Terracotta army
Since the time of their discovery, the figures of the Chinese
Religion
In the Hellenistic period, there was much continuity in
Hellenistic monarchies were closely associated with the religious life of the kingdoms they ruled. This had already been a feature of Macedonian kingship, which had priestly duties.
The worship of dynastic ruler cults was also a feature of this period, most notably in Egypt, where the
The Hellenistic age also saw a rise in the disillusionment with traditional religion.
Literature
The Hellenistic period saw the rise of
Around 240 BC Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave from southern Italy, translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Greek literature would have a dominant effect on the development of the Latin literature of the Romans. The poetry of Virgil, Horace and Ovid were all based on Hellenistic styles.
Philosophy
During the Hellenistic period, many different schools of thought developed, and these schools of Hellenistic philosophy had a significant influence on the Greek and Roman ruling elite.
Athens, with its multiple philosophical schools, continued to remain the center of philosophical thought. However, Athens had now lost her political freedom, and Hellenistic philosophy is a reflection of this new difficult period. In this political climate, Hellenistic philosophers went in search of goals such as ataraxia (un-disturbedness), autarky (self-sufficiency), and apatheia (freedom from suffering), which would allow them to wrest well-being or eudaimonia out of the most difficult turns of fortune. This occupation with the inner life, with personal inner liberty and with the pursuit of eudaimonia is what all Hellenistic philosophical schools have in common.[125]
The
The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy (often forcefully, as under Justinian I), which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: Jewish philosophy, Christian philosophy, and early Islamic philosophy. In spite of this shift, Hellenistic philosophy continued to influence these three religious traditions and the Renaissance thought which followed them.
Sciences
Science in the Hellenistic age differed from that of the previous era in at least two ways: first, it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas with those that had developed in older civilizations; secondly, to some extent, it was supported by royal patrons in the kingdoms founded by Alexander's successors. The cultural competition among the Hellenistic kingdoms produced seats of learning throughout the Mediterranean, of which the most important was Alexandria in Egypt, which became a major center of scholarship in the 3rd century BC. In their scientific investigations, Hellenistic scholars frequently employed the principles developed earlier in ancient Greece: the application of mathematics to natural phenomena and the undertaking of deliberate empirical research.[127][128]
In
In the
In the life sciences, medicine made significant advances within the framework of the Hippocratic tradition. Praxagoras theorized that blood traveled through the veins, while Herophilos and Erasistratus performed dissections and vivisections of humans and animals, providing accurate descriptions of the nervous system, liver and other key organs. Influenced by Philinus of Cos, a student of Herophilos, the Empiric school of medicine focused on strict observation and rejected the unseen causes of the Dogmatic school. In botany, Theophrastus was known for his work in plant classification while Crateuas wrote a compendium on botanic pharmacy. The library of Alexandria presumably included a zoo for research and Hellenistic zoologists include Archelaos, Leonidas of Byzantion, Apollodoros of Alexandria and Bion of Soloi.[139]
The technological achievement of the Hellenistic age is masterly displayed in the
Past interpretations of Hellenistic science often downplayed its significance, as found for instance in the English classical scholar
Military science
Hellenistic warfare was a continuation of the military developments of
Hellenistic military equipment was generally characterized by an increase in size.
Art
The term Hellenistic is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean, rather than the
, but also a huge time range. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience.Hardly any examples of Hellenistic painting survive, but we have many Roman copies of
Hellenistic art saw a turn from the idealistic, perfected, calm and composed figures of classical Greek art to a style dominated by
People of all ages and social statuses were depicted in the art of the Hellenistic age. Artists such as Peiraikos chose mundane and lower class subjects for his paintings. According to Pliny, "He painted barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, asses, eatables and similar subjects, earning for himself the name of rhyparographos [painter of dirt/low things]. In these subjects he could give consummate pleasure, selling them for more than other artists received for their large pictures" (Natural History, Book XXXV.112). Even barbarians, such as the Galatians, were depicted in heroic form, prefiguring the artistic theme of the noble savage. The image of Alexander the Great was also an important artistic theme, and all of the diadochi had themselves depicted imitating Alexander's youthful look.
Developments in painting included experiments in chiaroscuro by Zeuxis and the development of landscape painting and still life painting.[147] Greek temples built during the Hellenistic period were generally larger than classical ones, such as the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the temple of Artemis at Sardis, and the temple of Apollo at Didyma (rebuilt by Seleucus in 300 BC). The royal palace (basileion) also came into its own during the Hellenistic period, the first extant example being the massive 4th-century villa of Cassander at Vergina.
This period also saw the first written works of art history in the histories of Duris of Samos and Xenocrates of Athens, a sculptor and a historian of sculpture and painting.
There has been a trend in writing the history of this period to depict Hellenistic art as a decadent style, following the Golden Age of
Sport
Throughout the Hellenistic period, several sports were practiced and promoted across the different cities and kingdoms of the time. Hunting was both a favorite pastime of the Macedonian kings and nobles of that age and a favorite subject for paintings. In Egypt, the Ptolemaic kings sponsored new athletic festivals, and subsidize 'Egyptian' or 'Alexandrian' athletes at major competitions.[149] Egyptian kings also provided funds for athletic facilities to be built, which housed ephebic education and encouraged citizens to partake in gymnasium classes. Ptolemaic and other Hellenistic royals often competed at athletic competitions like The Olympics or other Panathenaic games.
Females during the Hellenistic period were often given opportunities to show off they athletic abilities in similar ways to men. In Egypt, Ptolemaic females were well known in terms of court, and during equestrian competitions. Despite females being banned from watching sports and events like the male Olympics, in Hellenistic Empires, female sport (especially equestrian sport) flourished. Discoveries of poems in 2001 depicted eighteen different wins for equestrian sport. These wins took place at competitions like Olympia and Athens, and all originated from the royal court. Several of these wins resulted from women and confirmed the desires and self-representation of Hellenistic rulers as they tried to influence the Greek World.[150]
Other forms of leisure activities included public presentations and demonstrations. These performances were often orchestrated by the royals for their own enjoyment. It is noted that these events were catered for both the female and male audiences. These events would often contain displays of exotic animals and other paraphernalia that aided to display their wealth and the territories that they controlled. While empires during the Hellenistic period ruled, they witnessed "expansion of 'crown' or 'Iso-' (equal to) major athletic festivals".[149] This movement as well as the public displays for royalty were both trends what would continue into the Roman Empire.
Legacy
The focus on the Hellenistic period over the course of the 19th century by scholars and historians has led to an issue common to the study of historical periods; historians see the period of focus as a mirror of the period in which they are living. Many 19th-century scholars contended that the Hellenistic period represented a cultural decline from the brilliance of classical Greece. Though this comparison is now seen as unfair and meaningless, it has been noted that even commentators of the time saw the end of a cultural era which could not be matched again.[151] This may be inextricably linked with the nature of government. It has been noted by Herodotus that after the establishment of the Athenian democracy:
the Athenians found themselves suddenly a great power. Not just in one field, but in everything they set their minds to ... As subjects of a tyrant, what had they accomplished? ...Held down like slaves they had shirked and slacked; once they had won their freedom, not a citizen but he could feel like he was labouring for himself[152]
Thus, with the decline of the Greek polis, and the establishment of monarchical states, the environment and social freedom in which to excel may have been reduced.
However,
Influence on Christianity
Alexander's conquests helped the spread of
See also
- Ancient Carthage
- Greco-Roman world
- Hellenism (Academia)
- Hellenism (neoclassicism)
- Hellenistic fortifications
- Hellenistic glass
- Humanism
- La Tène culture
- Pre-Roman Iron Age
References
- ^ [CHAMBERS Dictionary of WORLD HISTORY]
- ^ Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013. Retrieved 27 May 2013. Archived here.
- ^ Hellenistic Age. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2013. Retrieved 27 May 2013. Archived here.
- ^ "Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age". www.penfield.edu. Retrieved 2017-10-08.
- ^ Professor Gerhard Rempel, Hellenistic Civilization (Western New England College) Archived 2008-07-05 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Ulrich Wilcken, Griechische Geschichte im Rahmen der Altertumsgeschichte.
- ^ Green 2008, pp. xv–xvii.
- Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Retrieved 8 September 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9.
- ^ Chaniotis, Angelos (2018). Age of Conquests: The Greek World from Alexander to Hadrian. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 4.
- ISBN 978-1-317-57622-8. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
- Perseus Project.
- ISBN 978-0-19-980507-5.
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- ISBN 978-0-19-280511-9.
- ^ a b F.W. Walbank et al. THE CAMBRIDGE ANCIENT HISTORY, SECOND EDITION, VOLUME VII, PART I: The Hellenistic World, p. 1.
- ^ Bury, p. 684.[full citation needed]
- ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9.
- ^ a b Green, Peter (2007). The Hellenistic Age (A Short History). New York: Modern Library Chronicles.
- ^ Green, Peter (1990); Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age. University of California Press. pp. 7–8.
- ^ Green, p. 9.
- ^ Green, p. 14.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-5267-3029-9.
- ^ a b c Green, p. 21.
- ^ Green, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Green, p. 126.
- ^ Green, p. 129.
- ^ Green, p. 134.
- ^ Green, p. 199
- ^ Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 35
- ^ Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, p. 11.
- ^ McGing, BC. The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus, p. 17.
- ^ Green, p. 139.
- ^ Berthold, Richard M., Rhodes in the Hellenistic Age, Cornell University Press, 1984, p. 12.
- ^ Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, and Sarah B. Pomeroy. A Brief History of Ancient Greece: Politics, Society, and Culture. Oxford University Press p. 255
- ISBN 0-521-23348-8, 1994, p. 423, "Through contact with their Greek neighbors some Illyrian tribe became bilingual (Strabo Vii.7.8.Diglottoi) in particular the Bylliones and the Taulantian tribes close to Epidamnus"
- ^ Dalmatia: research in the Roman province 1970–2001 : papers in honour of J.J by David Davison, Vincent L. Gaffney, J. J. Wilkes, Emilio Marin, 2006, p. 21, "...completely Hellenised town..."
- ISBN 0-8155-5052-9, 1977, p. 174
- ^ The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe) by John Wilkes, 1996, pp. 233, 236. "The Illyrians liked decorated belt-buckles or clasps (see figure 29). Some of gold and silver with openwork designs of stylised birds have a similar distribution to the Mramorac bracelets and may also have been produced under Greek influence."
- ^ Carte de la Macédoine et du monde égéen vers 200 av. J.-C.
- ^ Webber, Christopher; Odyrsian arms equipment and tactics.
- ISBN 0-19-815047-4, p. 3
- ISBN 0-19-815047-4, p. 5
- ^ The Peloponnesian War: A Military Study (Warfare and History) by J. F. Lazenby, 2003, p. 224, "... number of strongholds, and he made himself useful fighting 'the Thracians without a king' on behalf of the more Hellenized Thracian kings and their Greek neighbours (Nepos, Alc. ...
- ^ Walbank et al. (2008), p. 394.
- ^ Boardman, John (1993), The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, Princeton University Press, p. 308.
- ^ Celtic Inscriptions on Gaulish and British Coins by Beale Poste p. 135
- ^ Momigliano, Arnaldo. Alien Wisdom: The Limits of Hellenization, pp. 54–55.
- ISBN 8882653056
- ISBN 0-313-31963-4, pp. 69–71.
- ISBN 8882653056
- ISBN 0-313-31963-4, p. 70.
- ISBN 0-313-31963-4, pp. 70–71.
- ISBN 8882653056
- ^ Green, p. 187
- ^ Green, p. 190
- OCLC 10020504.
- ^ Green, p. 193.
- ^ Green, p. 291.
- ISBN 978-0-542-82473-9.
... and the Greeks, or at least the Greco-Macedonian Seleucid Empire, replace the Persians as the Easterners.
- ^ Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (London, England) (1993). The Journal of Hellenic studies, Volumes 113-114. Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. p. 211.
The Seleucid kingdom has traditionally been regarded as basically a Greco-Macedonian state and its rulers thought of as successors to Alexander.
- ISBN 978-0-521-68974-8.
The wars between the two most prominent Greek dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel.... As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids.
- ^ OCLC 585939.
In addition to the court and the army, Syrian cities were full of Greek businessmen, many of them pure Greeks from Greece. The senior posts in the civil service were also held by Greeks. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Greek and ruled by means of Greek officials and Greek soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Greece, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population.
- ^ Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 43.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-534-62164-3.
The Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BC by emigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite.
- ISBN 978-0-567-24719-3.
Like other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their "friends" and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed.
- ^ Britannica, Seleucid kingdom, 2008, O.Ed.
- ^ Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007, p. 44.
- ^ Green, pp. 293-295.
- ^ Green, p. 304.
- ^ Green, p. 421.
- ^ "The Pergamon Altar". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Archived from the original on October 10, 2014. Retrieved April 5, 2013.
- ^ Pergamum.
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - ^ Shipley (2000) pp. 318–319.
- ^ Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, 25.2 and 26.2; the related subject of copulative compounds, where both are of equal weight, is exhaustively treated in Anna Granville Hatcher, Modern English Word-Formation and Neo-Latin: A Study of the Origins of English (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University), 1951.
- ^ This distinction is remarked upon in William M. Ramsay (revised by Mark W. Wilson), Historical Commentary on Galatians 1997:302; Ramsay notes the 4th century AD Paphlagonian Themistius' usage Γαλατίᾳ τῇ Ἑλληνίδι.
- ^ Bedal, Leigh-Ann; The Petra Pool-complex: A Hellenistic Paradeisos in the Nabataean Capital, p. 178.
- ^ "Gods and Worship". nabataea.net.
- ^ Alberge, Dalya (21 August 2010). "Discovery of ancient cave paintings in Petra stuns art scholars". Theguardian.
- ^ René Grousset (1946), Histoire de l'Arménie (in French), Paris, pp. 90–91
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Bivar, A.D.H. (1983), "The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids", in Yarshater, Ehsan, Cambridge History of Iran 3.1, Cambridge UP, pp. 21–99.
- ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9.
- ^ Green, p. 499.[clarification needed]
- ^ Green, p. 501.
- ^ Green, p. 504.
- ^ Ponet, James (22 December 2005). "The Maccabees and the Hellenists". Faith-based. Slate. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
- ^ "The Revolt of the Maccabees". Simpletoremember.com. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
- ^ McGing, B. C. (1986). The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill. pp. 91–92.
- ISBN 978-2-7177-1825-6.
- ^ The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M. Rosenfield, University of California Press, 1967, p.135 [1]
- ^ R.C. Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV. The Greek legend clearly implies that the two kings were father and son, and Senior dismisses the older reading "grandson" on the Kharosthi legend.
- ^ Ghose, Sanujit (2011). "Cultural links between India and the Greco-Roman world". Ancient History Encyclopedia.
- ^ "Chapter XXIX". lakdiva.org.
- ^ Mahabharata 3.188.34-36.
- ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-349-11563-4.
- ISBN 978-90-279-7904-9.
- ^ Gent, John. The Scythie nations, down to the fall of the Western empire, p. 4.
- ^ Prag & Quinn (editors). The Hellenistic West, pp. 229–237.
- ^ Pârvan, Vasile. Dacia, p. 100.
- ^ Green (1990), pp. xx, 68–69.
- ^ Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 190.
- ^ ISBN 1-85043-594-4.
- ^ Green, p. 23.
- ^ Green, p. 313.
- ^ Green, p. 315.
- ^ Green, p. 22.
- from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
- from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
- ^ S2CID 251690411.
More than thirty-five years ago [1986], there was a European scholar (German Hafner, 1911–2008) who considered that the art of the terracotta army "originated from Western contact, originated from knowledge of Alexander the Great and the splendor of Greek art." Lukas Nickel of SOAS has put forward a similar proposition.
- ^ "Early links with West likely inspiration for Terracotta Warriors, argues SOAS scholar". School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London. Archived from the original on 6 October 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
- ^ "Western contact with China began long before Marco Polo, experts say". BBC News. 12 October 2016.
- ^ "Chinese archaeologist refutes BBC report on Terracotta Warriors". China Daily 中國日報. Xinhua 新華網. www.chinadaily.com. 2016-10-18. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
- ^ Hanink, Johanna; Silva, Felipe Rojas (20 November 2016). "Why China's Terracotta Warriors Are Stirring Controversy". Live Science. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2017. Originally published in Hanink, Johanna; Silva, Felipe Rojas (18 November 2016). "Why there's so much backlash to the theory that Greek art inspired China's Terracotta Army". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- ^ Bugh, pp. 206–210.
- ^ Bugh, p. 209.
- ^ Walbank et al. (2008), p. 84.
- ^ Walbank et al. (2008), p. 86.
- ^ Green, p. 402.
- ^ Green, p. 396.
- ^ Green, p. 399.
- ^ Green, pp. 66-74.
- ^ Green, p. 65.
- ^ Green, p. 179.
- ^ Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, p. 53.
- Bill Casselman. "One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid". University of British Columbia. Retrieved 2008-09-26.
- JSTOR 23040930.
- ^ Lloyd (1973), p. 177.
- ^ Bugh, p. 245.
- S2CID 120954547.
- JSTOR 2691014.
- ISSN 0008-8994.
- ^ Russo, Lucio (2004). The Forgotten Revolution. Berlin: Springer. pp. 273–277.
- ^ Alfred, Randy (June 19, 2008). "June 19, 240 B.C.E: The Earth Is Round, and It's This Big". Wired. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
- ^ Otto Neugebauer (1975). A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. New York: Springer. pp. 284–5.; Lloyd (1973), pp. 69-71.
- S2CID 36841784.
- ^ Hero (1899). "Pneumatika, Book ΙΙ, Chapter XI". Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und Automatentheater (in Greek and German). Wilhelm Schmidt (translator). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. pp. 228–232.
- ^ Research Machines plc. (2004). The Hutchinson dictionary of scientific biography. Abingdon, Oxon: Helicon Publishing. p. 546.
Hero of Alexandria (lived c. AD 60) Greek mathematician, engineer and the greatest experimentalist of antiquity
- ^ Green, p. 467.
- ^ PMID 17136067.;
- S2CID 33513516.; Noble Wilford, John (2006-11-30). "Early Astronomical 'Computer' Found to Be Technically Complex". The New York Times. Retrieved 2006-11-30.
- ^ F. M. Cornford. The Unwritten Philosophy and Other Essays. p. 83. quoted in Lloyd (1973), p. 154.
- ISBN 3-540-20396-6. But see the critical reviews by Mott Greene, Nature, vol 430, no. 7000 (5 Aug 2004):614 [2] and Michael Rowan-Robinson, Physics World, vol. 17, no. 4 (April 2004)[3].
- ^ Bugh, p. 285.
- ^ Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, p. 92.
- ^ Green, p. 342.
- ^ Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, pp. 117–118.
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History (XXXIV, 52)
- ^ ISBN 9780197520956.
- ISBN 9780197520956.
- ^ Green, p. xv.
- ^ Herodotus (Holland, T. Persian Fire, p. 193.)
- ^ Green.[full citation needed]
- ^ "The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." — "Antioch," Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in online .pdf file. Warning: Takes several minutes to download).
Works cited
- ISBN 0-393-00780-4.
Further reading
- Austin, M. M. The Hellenistic World From Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources In Translation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
- Bugh, Glenn Richard (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
- Börm, Henning and Nino Luraghi (eds.). The Polis in the Hellenistic World. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2018.
- Cary, M. A History of the Greek World, From 323 to 146 B.C. London: Methuen, 1963.
- Cerqueiro, Daniel. La Hélade Umbral de la civilización occidental. Ed. Pequeña Venecia. Buenos Aires 2013, ISBN 978-987-9239-23.0
- Chamoux, François. Hellenistic Civilization. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2003.
- Champion, Michael and Lara O'Sullivan. Cultural Perceptions of Violence In the Hellenistic World. New York: Routledge, 2017.
- Erskine, Andrew (ed.). A Companion to the Hellenistic World. Hoboken: Wiley, 2008.
- Goodman, Martin. "Under the influence: Hellenism in ancient Jewish life." Biblical Archaeology Review 36, no. 1 (2010), 60.
- Grainger, John D. Great Power Diplomacy In the Hellenistic World. New York: Routledge, 2017.
- Green, Peter. Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
- Green, Peter (2008). The Hellenistic Age. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-58836-706-8.
- Kralli, Ioanna. The Hellenistic Peloponnese: Interstate Relations: a Narrative and Analytic History, From the Fourth Century to 146 BC. Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales, 2017.
- Lewis, D. M., John Boardman, and Simon Hornblower. Cambridge Ancient History Vol. 6: The Fourth Century BC. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
- Rimell, Victoria and Markus Asper. Imagining Empire: Political Space In Hellenistic and Roman Literature. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmbH, 2017.
- Thonemann, Peter. The Hellenistic Age. First edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
- Walbank, F. W. The Hellenistic World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982.