Ancient Greek literature
Ancient Greek literature is
The lyric poets
Important later writers included
Pre-classical and classical antiquity
This period of Greek literature stretches from
Greek literature was divided in well-defined literary genres, each one having a compulsory formal structure, about both
Epic poetry
At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey.[8]: 1–3 The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the works as they now stand are credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back before his time (see Homeric Question).[8]: 15 The Iliad is a narrative of a single episode spanning over the course of a ten-day-period from near the end of the ten years of the Trojan War. It centers on the person of Achilles,[9] who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.[10][8]: 3
The Odyssey is an account of the adventures of
The other great poet of the preclassical period was Hesiod.[8]: 23–24 [13] Unlike Homer, Hesiod refers to himself in his poetry.[14] Nonetheless, nothing is known about him from any external source. He was a native of Boeotia in central Greece, and is thought to have lived and worked around 700 BC.[15] Hesiod's two extant poems are Works and Days and the Theogony. Works and Days is a faithful depiction of the poverty-stricken country life he knew so well, and it sets forth principles and rules for farmers. It vividly describes the ages of mankind, beginning with a long-past Golden Age.[16] The Theogony is a systematic account of creation and of the gods.
The writings of Homer and Hesiod were held in extremely high regard throughout antiquity[13] and were viewed by many ancient authors as the foundational texts behind ancient Greek religion;[17] Homer told the story of a heroic past, which Hesiod bracketed with a creation narrative and an account of the practical realities of contemporary daily life.[8]: 23–24
Lyric poetry
Many lyric poems were written in the
Drama
All surviving works of Greek drama were composed by playwrights from
In the age that followed the Greco-Persian Wars, the awakened national spirit of Athens was expressed in hundreds of tragedies based on heroic and legendary themes of the past. The tragic plays grew out of simple choral songs and dialogues performed at festivals of the god Dionysus. In the classical period, performances included three tragedies and one pastoral drama, depicting four different episodes of the same myth. Wealthy citizens were chosen to bear the expense of costuming and training the chorus as a public and religious duty. Attendance at the festival performances was regarded as an act of worship. Performances were held in the great open-air theater of Dionysus in Athens. The poets competed for the prizes offered for the best plays.[28]
All fully surviving Greek tragedies are conventionally attributed to Aeschylus, Sophocles or Euripides. The authorship of Prometheus Bound, which is traditionally attributed to Aeschylus,[29] and Rhesus, which is traditionally attributed to Euripides, are, however, questioned.[30] There are seven surviving tragedies attributed to Aeschylus. Three of these plays, Agamemnon, The Libation-Bearers, and The Eumenides, form a trilogy known as the Oresteia.[31] One of these plays, Prometheus Bound, however, may actually be the work of Aeschylus's son Euphorion.[32]
Seven works of Sophocles have survived, the most acclaimed of which are the
There are nineteen surviving plays attributed to
Like tragedy, comedy arose from a ritual in honor of
The third dramatic genre was the satyr play. Although the genre was popular, only one complete example of a satyr play has survived: Cyclops by Euripides.[47] Large portions of a second satyr play, Ichneutae by Sophocles, have been recovered from the site of Oxyrhynchus in Egypt among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri.[48]
Historiography
Two notable historians who lived during the Classical Era were
A third historian of ancient Greece, Xenophon of Athens, began his Hellenica where Thucydides ended his work about 411 BC and carried his history to 362 BC.[51] Xenophon's most famous work is his book The Anabasis, a detailed, first-hand account of his participation in a Greek mercenary army that tried to help the Persian Cyrus expel his brother from the throne, another famous work relating to Persian history is his Cyropaedia. Xenophon also wrote three works in praise of the philosopher Socrates: The Apology of Socrates to the Jury, The Symposium, and Memorabilia. Although both Xenophon and Plato knew Socrates, their accounts are very different. Many comparisons have been made between the account of the military historian and the account of the poet-philosopher.[52]
Philosophy
Many important and influential philosophers lived during the fifth and fourth centuries BC. Among the earliest Greek philosophers were the three so-called "
Very little is known for certain about the life of the philosopher
Of all the classical philosophers, however, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are generally considered the most important and influential. Socrates did not write any books himself and modern scholars debate whether or not Plato's portrayal of him is accurate. Some scholars contend that many of his ideas, or at least a vague approximation of them, are expressed in Plato's early socratic dialogues.[59] Meanwhile, other scholars have argued that Plato's portrayal of Socrates is merely a fictional representation intended to expound Plato's own opinions who has very little to do with the historical figure of the same name.[60] The debate over the extent to which Plato's portrayal of Socrates represents the actual Socrates's ideas is known as the Socratic problem.[61][62]
Plato expressed his ideas through dialogues, that is, written works purporting to describe conversations between different individuals. Some of the best-known of these include:
Aristotle of Stagira is widely considered to be one of the most important and influential philosophical thinkers of all time.[69] The first sentence of his Metaphysics reads: "All men by nature desire to know." He has, therefore, been called the "Father of those who know." His medieval disciple Thomas Aquinas referred to him simply as "the Philosopher". Aristotle was a student at Plato's Academy, and like his teacher, he wrote dialogues, or conversations. However, none of these exist today. The body of writings that have come down to the present probably represents lectures that he delivered at his own school in Athens, the Lyceum.[70] Even from these books, the enormous range of his interests is evident: He explored matters other than those that are today considered philosophical; the extant treatises cover logic, the physical and biological sciences, ethics, politics, and constitutional government. Among Aristotle's most notable works are Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, Poetics, On the Soul, and Rhetoric.[71]
Hellenistic period
By 338 BC all of the Greek
The city of Alexandria in northern Egypt became, from the 3rd century BC, the outstanding center of Greek culture. It also soon attracted a large Jewish population, making it the largest center for Jewish scholarship in the ancient world. The
Poetry
The genre of bucolic poetry was first developed by the poet Theocritus.[76] The Roman Virgil later wrote his Eclogues in this genre.[77] Callimachus, a scholar at the Library of Alexandria, composed the Aetia ("Causes"),[78] a long poem written in four volumes of elegiac couplets describing the legendary origins of obscure customs, festivals, and names,[78] which he probably wrote in several stages over the course of many years in the third century BC.[78] The Aetia was lost during the Middle Ages,[78] but, over the course of the twentieth century, much of it was recovered due to new discoveries of ancient papyri.[78] Scholars initially denigrated it as "second-rate", showing great learning, but lacking true "art".[78] Over the course of the century, scholarly appraisal of it greatly improved, with many scholars now seeing it in a much more positive light.[78] Callimachus also wrote short poems for special occasions and at least one short epic, the Ibis, which was directed against his former pupil Apollonius.[79] He also compiled a prose treatise entitled the Pinakes, in which he catalogued all the major works held in the Library of Alexandria.[80]
The Alexandrian poet Apollonius of Rhodes is best known for his epic poem the Argonautica, which narrates the adventures of Jason and his shipmates the Argonauts on their quest to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the land of Colchis.[81] The poet Aratus wrote the hexameter poem Phaenomena, a poetic rendition of Eudoxus of Cnidus's treatise on the stars written in the fourth century BC.[82]
Drama
During the
Historiography
The historian Timaeus was born in Sicily but spent most of his life in Athens.[84] His History, though lost, is significant because of its influence on Polybius. In 38 books it covered the history of Sicily and Italy to the year 264 BC, which is where Polybius begins his work. Timaeus also wrote the Olympionikai, a valuable chronological study of the Olympic Games.[85]
Ancient biography
Science and mathematics
Prose fiction
Very little has survived of prose fiction from the Hellenistic Era. The Milesiaka by Aristides of Miletos was probably written during the second century BC. The Milesiaka itself has not survived to the present day in its complete form, but various references to it have survived. The book established a whole new genre of so-called "
The
Roman period
While the transition from city-state to empire affected philosophy a great deal, shifting the emphasis from political theory to personal ethics, Greek letters continued to flourish both under the
: 208–213Poetry
The poet
The poet
Historiography
The historian Polybius was born about 200 BC. He was brought to Rome as a hostage in 168. In Rome he became a friend of the general Scipio Aemilianus. He probably accompanied the general to Spain and North Africa in the wars against Carthage. He was with Scipio at the destruction of Carthage in 146.[104]
The historians
Best known of the late Greek historians to modern readers is Plutarch of Chaeronea, who died about AD 119. His Parallel Lives of great Greek and Roman leaders has been read by every generation since the work was first published. His other surviving work is the Moralia, a collection of essays on ethical, religious, political, physical, and literary topics.[109][110]
During later times, so-called "
Science and mathematics
The physician
The scientist of the Roman period who had the greatest influence on later generations was undoubtedly the astronomer
Philosophy
Another major philosopher of his period was
After the rise of Christianity, many of the most important philosophers were Christians. The second-century Christian apologist
Prose fiction
The Roman Period was the time when the majority of extant works of Greek prose fiction were composed. The ancient Greek novels Leucippe and Clitophon by Achilles Tatius[133][134] and Daphnis and Chloe by Longus[135] were both probably written during the early second century AD. Daphnis and Chloe, by far the most famous of the five surviving ancient Greek romance novels, is a nostalgic tale of two young lovers growing up in an idealized pastoral environment on the Greek island of Lesbos.[136] The Wonders Beyond Thule by Antonius Diogenes may have also been written during the early second century AD, although scholars are unsure of its exact date. The Wonders Beyond Thule has not survived in its complete form, but a very lengthy summary of it written by Photios I of Constantinople has survived.[137] The Ephesian Tale by Xenophon of Ephesus was probably written during the late second century AD.[135]
The satirist
The Aethiopica by Heliodorus of Emesa was probably written during the third century AD.[146] It tells the story of a young Ethiopian princess named Chariclea, who is estranged from her family and goes on many misadventures across the known world.[147] Of all the ancient Greek novels, the one that attained the greatest level of popularity was the Alexander Romance, a fictionalized account of the exploits of Alexander the Great written in the third century AD. Eighty versions of it have survived in twenty-four different languages, attesting that, during the Middle Ages, the novel was nearly as popular as the Bible.[148]: 650–654 Versions of the Alexander Romance were so commonplace in the fourteenth century that Geoffrey Chaucer wrote that "...every wight that hath discrecioun / Hath herd somwhat or al of [Alexander's] fortune."[148]: 653–654
Legacy
Ancient Greek literature has had an enormous impact on
During the
The influence of classical Greek literature on modern literature is also evident. Numerous figures from classical literature and mythology appear throughout
John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost is written using a similar style to the two Homeric epics.[161] It also makes frequent allusions to figures from classical literature and mythology, using them as symbols to convey a Christian message.[162] Lucian's A True Story was part of the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels.[158]: 545 Bulfinch's Mythology, a book on Greek mythology published in 1867 and aimed at a popular audience, was described by Carl J. Richard as "one of the most popular books ever published in the United States".[163]
George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion is a modern, rationalized retelling of the ancient Greek legend of Pygmalion.[158]: 794 James Joyce's novel Ulysses, heralded by critics as one of the greatest works of modern literature,[164][165] is a retelling of Homer's Odyssey set in modern-day Dublin.[166][167] The mid-twentieth-century British author Mary Renault wrote a number of critically acclaimed novels inspired by ancient Greek literature and mythology, including The Last of the Wine and The King Must Die.[168]
Even in works that do not consciously draw on Graeco-Roman literature, authors often employ concepts and themes originating in ancient Greece. The ideas expressed in Aristotle's
Notes
- JSTOR 292475.
- ^ Simplicius, Comments on Aristotle's Physics (24, 13):
- "Ἀναξίμανδρος [...] λέγει δ' αὐτὴν μήτε ὕδωρ μήτε ἄλλο τι τῶν καλουμένων εἶναι στοιχείων, ἀλλ' ἑτέραν τινὰ φύσιν ἄπειρον, ἐξ ἧς ἅπαντας γίνεσθαι τοὺς οὐρανοὺς καὶ τοὺς ἐν αὐτοῖς κόσμους· ἐξ ὧν δὲ ἡ γένεσίς ἐστι τοῖς οὖσι, καὶ τὴν φθορὰν εἰς ταῦτα γίνεσθαι κατὰ τὸ χρεών· διδόναι γὰρ αὐτὰ δίκην καὶ τίσιν ἀλλήλοις τῆς ἀδικίας κατὰ τὴν τοῦ χρόνου τάξιν, ποιητικωτέροις οὕτως ὀνόμασιν αὐτὰ λέγων. δῆλον δὲ ὅτι τὴν εἰς ἄλληλα μεταβολὴν τῶν τεττάρων στοιχείων οὗτος θεασάμενος οὐκ ἠξίωσεν ἕν τι τούτων ὑποκείμενον ποιῆσαι, ἀλλά τι ἄλλο παρὰ ταῦτα· οὗτος δὲ οὐκ ἀλλοιουμένου τοῦ στοιχείου τὴν γένεσιν ποιεῖ, ἀλλ' ἀποκρινομένων τῶν ἐναντίων διὰ τῆς αἰδίου κινήσεως."
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- ^ Bowersock, Glanwill W. The Aethiopica of Heliodorus and the Historia Augusta. In: Historiae Augustae Colloquia n.s. 2, Colloquium Genevense 1991. p. 43.
- ^ ISBN 0-520-04306-5. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
- ^ a b "Western literature". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ English translations of Musaeus Grammaticus' Hero and Leander: The Divine Poem of Musaeus: First of All Books Translated According to the Original (George Chapman, 1616); Hero & Leander (E.E. Sikes, 1920)
- ISBN 978-1-85399-133-2.
- ISBN 978-1-108-02706-9. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
- ^ Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret C. Jacob, James R. Jacob, 2008, 903 pages, p.261/262.
- ^ Reynolds and Wilson, pp. 119, 131.
- ^ W. W. Combs, Erasmus and the textus receptus, DBSJ 1 (Spring 1996), 45.
- ISBN 0-86516-510-6. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ISBN 9780028623856. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.
- ^ Armstrong, A. Macc. "Timon of Athens - A Legendary Figure?", Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 34, No. 1 (April 1987), pp. 7–11
- ISBN 0-520-04306-5. Retrieved 17 June 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-521-13671-6.
Homeric style.
- ^ Osgood, Charles Grosvenor (1900). The Classical Mythology of Milton's English Poems. New York City, New York: Henry Holt. p. ix-xi. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
- ^ Richard, Carl J., The Golden Age of the Classics in America, Harvard University Press, 2009, page 33.
- ^ Harte, Tim (Summer 2003). "Sarah Danius, The Senses of Modernism: Technology, Perception, and Aesthetics". Bryn Mawr Review of Comparative Literature. 4 (1). Archived from the original on 2003-11-05. Retrieved 2001-07-10. (review of Danius book).
- ^ Kiberd, Declan (16 June 2009). "Ulysses, Modernism's Most Sociable Masterpiece". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
- ISBN 978-90-420-1617-0. Retrieved February 1, 2011.
- ^ Ellmann, Richard. James Joyce. Oxford University Press, revised edition (1983).
- ^ "Who was Mary Renault?". The Mary Renault Society. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
- ^ Forster, E. M.; Hans-Georg, Gadamer. "Aristotle:Poetics". CriticaLink. University of Hawaii. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ISBN 0-631-23200-1.
- ^ "Catharsis". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Ethos". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Anagnorisis". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Hamartia". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Hubris". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Mimesis". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Plot". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Nemesis". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Peripeteia". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
Further reading
- Beye, Charles Rowan (1987). Ancient Greek Literature and Society. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1874-7.
- Easterling, P.E.; Knox, B.M.W., eds. (1985). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 1: Greek literature. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21042-9.
- Flacelière, Robert (1964). A Literary History of Greece. (Translated by Douglas Garman). Chicago: Aldine Pub.
- Gutzwiller, Kathryn (2007). A Guide to Hellenistic Literature. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23322-0.
- Hadas, Moses (1950). A History of Greek Literature. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
- Lesky, Albin (1966). A History of Greek Literature. Translated by James Willis; Cornelis de Heer. Indianapolis / Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87220-350-6.
- Schmidt, Michael (2004). The First Poets: Lives of the Ancient Greek Poets. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-64394-0.
- ISBN 9780226813165.
- Whitmarsh, Tim (2004). Ancient Greek Literature. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 0-7456-2792-7.
- Walton, J. Michael (2006). Found in Translation: Greek Drama in English. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86110-6. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
External links
- Works related to Ancient Greek literature at Wikisource