Hepatitis A
This article needs to be updated.(September 2020) |
Hepatitis A | |
---|---|
Other names | Infectious hepatitis |
Supportive care, liver transplantation[1] | |
Frequency | 114 million symptomatic and nonsymptomatic (2015)[4] |
Deaths | 11,200[5] |
Hepatitis A is an infectious disease of the liver caused by Hepatovirus A (HAV);[6] it is a type of viral hepatitis.[7] Many cases have few or no symptoms, especially in the young.[1] The time between infection and symptoms, in those who develop them, is 2–6 weeks.[2] When symptoms occur, they typically last 8 weeks and may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, jaundice, fever, and abdominal pain.[1] Around 10–15% of people experience a recurrence of symptoms during the 6 months after the initial infection.[1] Acute liver failure may rarely occur, with this being more common in the elderly.[1]
It is usually spread by eating food or drinking water contaminated with infected feces..
The hepatitis A vaccine is effective for prevention.[10][11][12] [1][3][needs update] Some countries recommend it routinely for children and those at higher risk who have not previously been vaccinated.[1][13] It appears to be effective for life.[1] Other preventive measures include hand washing and properly cooking food.[1] No specific treatment is available, with rest and medications for nausea or diarrhea recommended on an as-needed basis.[1] Infections usually resolve completely and without ongoing liver disease.[1] Treatment of acute liver failure, if it occurs, is with liver transplantation.[1]
Globally, around 1.4 million symptomatic cases occur each year
Signs and symptoms
Early symptoms of hepatitis A infection can be mistaken for influenza, but some people, especially children, exhibit no symptoms at all. Symptoms typically appear 2–6 weeks (the incubation period) after the initial infection.[14] About 90% of children do not have symptoms. The time between infection and symptoms, in those who develop them, is 2–6 weeks, with an average of 28 days.[2]
The risk for symptomatic infection is directly related to age, with more than 80% of adults having symptoms compatible with acute viral hepatitis and the majority of children having either asymptomatic or unrecognized infections.[15]
Symptoms usually last less than 2 months, although some people can be ill for as long as 6 months:[16]
- Fatigue
- Fever
- Nausea
- Appetite loss
- Jaundice, a yellowing of the skin or the whites of the eyes owing to hyperbilirubinemia
- Bile is removed from the bloodstream and excreted in the urine, giving it a dark amber color
- Diarrhea
- Light or clay-colored faeces (acholic faeces)
- Abdominal discomfort[17]
Extrahepatic manifestations
Virology
Hepatovirus A | |
---|---|
Electron micrograph of Hepatovirus A virions | |
Virus classification | |
(unranked): | Virus |
Realm: | Riboviria |
Kingdom: | Orthornavirae |
Phylum: | Pisuviricota |
Class: | Pisoniviricetes |
Order: | Picornavirales |
Family: | Picornaviridae
|
Genus: | Hepatovirus |
Species: | Hepatovirus A
|
Synonyms | |
Taxonomy
Hepatovirus A is a species of
Nine members of Hepatovirus are recognized.[23] These species infect bats, rodents, hedgehogs, and shrews. Phylogenetic analysis suggests a rodent origin for human Hepatitis A.[24]
A
Another hepatovirus –
Genotypes
One serotype and six different genotypes (three human and three simian) have been described.
The mutation rate in the genome has been estimated to be 1.73–9.76 × 10−4 nucleotide substitutions per site per year.[32][33] The human strains appear to have diverged from the simian about 3600 years ago.[33] The mean age of genotypes III and IIIA strains has been estimated to be 592 and 202 years, respectively.[33]
Structure
Hepatovirus A is a
Genus | Structure | Symmetry | Capsid | Genomic arrangement | Genomic segmentation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hepatovirus | Icosahedral | Pseudo T=3 | Nonenveloped | Linear | Monopartite |
Replication cycle
Vertebrates such as humans serve as the natural hosts. Transmission routes are fecal-oral and blood.[21]
Following ingestion, HAV enters the bloodstream through the
Within the liver hepatocytes, the
No apparent virus-mediated cytotoxicity occurs, presumably because of the virus' own requirement for an intact eIF4G, and liver pathology is likely immune-mediated.
Genus | Host details | Tissue tropism | Entry details | Release details | Replication site | Assembly site | Transmission |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hepatovirus | Humans; vertebrates | Liver | Cell receptor endocytosis | Lysis | Cytoplasm | Cytoplasm | Oral-fecal; blood |
Transmission
The virus spreads by the
In developing countries, and in regions with poor hygiene standards, the rates of infection with this virus are high[41] and the illness is usually contracted in early childhood. As incomes rise and access to clean water increases, the incidence of HAV decreases.[42] In developed countries, though, the infection is contracted primarily by susceptible young adults, most of whom are infected with the virus during trips to countries with a high incidence of the disease[2] or through contact with infectious persons.
Humans are the only natural reservoir of the virus. No known insect or other animal vectors can transmit the virus. A chronic HAV state has not been reported.[43]
Diagnosis
Although HAV is excreted in the feces towards the end of the incubation period, specific diagnosis is made by the detection of HAV-specific
During the acute stage of the infection, the
Hepatovirus A is present in the blood (viremia) and feces of infected people up to 2 weeks before clinical illness develops.[45]
Prevention
Hepatitis A can be prevented by vaccination, good hygiene, and sanitation.[6][46]
Vaccination
The two types of vaccines contain either inactivated Hepatovirus A or a live but attenuated virus.[3] Both provide active immunity against a future infection. The vaccine protects against HAV in more than 95% of cases for longer than 25 years.[47] In the United States, the vaccine developed by Maurice Hilleman and his team was licensed in 1995,[48][49] and the vaccine was first used in 1996 for children in high-risk areas, and in 1999 it was spread to areas with elevating levels of infection.[50]
The vaccine is given by injection. An initial dose provides protection lasting one year starting 2–4 weeks after vaccination; the second booster dose, given six to 12 months later, provides protection for over 20 years.[50]
The vaccine was introduced in 1992 and was initially recommended for persons at high risk. Since then, Bahrain and Israel have embarked on elimination programmes.[51] In countries where widespread vaccination has been practised, the incidence of hepatitis A has decreased dramatically.[52][53][54][55]
In the United States, vaccination of children is recommended at 1 and 2 years of age;[1] hepatitis A vaccination is not recommended in those younger than 12 months of age.[56] It is also recommended in those who have not been previously immunized and who have been exposed or are likely to be exposed due to travel.[1] The CDC recommends vaccination against infection for men who have sex with men.[57]
Treatment
No specific treatment for hepatitis A is known. Recovery from symptoms following infection may take several weeks or months. Therapy is aimed at maintaining comfort and adequate nutritional balance, including replacement of fluids lost from vomiting and diarrhea.[17]
Prognosis
In the United States in 1991, the mortality rate for hepatitis A was estimated to be 0.015% for the general population, but ranged up to 1.8–2.1% for those aged 50 and over who were hospitalized with icteric hepatitis.[58] The risk of death from acute liver failure following HAV infection increases with age and when the person has underlying chronic liver disease.[citation needed] Liver illness can be brought on by the hepatitis C virus, also known as Hep C or HCV. While the majority of kids and teenagers recover from the initial stage of HCV infection, 60–80% of them could show symptoms of a persistent liver infection. This may result in fatalities as well as far more severe liver issues. In the US, the hepatitis C virus is responsible for over 10,000 fatalities annually.
Young children who are infected with hepatitis A typically have a milder form of the disease, usually lasting 1–3 weeks, whereas adults tend to experience a much more severe form of the disease.[39]
Epidemiology
Globally, symptomatic HAV infections are believed to occur in around 1.4 million people a year.[1] About 114 million infections (asymptomatic and symptomatic) occurred all together in 2015.[4] Acute hepatitis A resulted in 11,200 deaths in 2015.[5] Developed countries have low circulating levels of hepatovirus A, while developing countries have higher levels of circulation.[59] Most adolescents and adults in developing countries have already had the disease, thus are immune.[59] Adults in midlevel countries may be at risk of disease with the potential of being exposed.[59]
Countries
Over 30,000 cases of hepatitis A were reported to the CDC in the US in 1997, but the number has since dropped to less than 2,000 cases reported per year.[60]
The most widespread hepatitis A outbreak in the United States occurred in 2018, in the state of Kentucky. The outbreak is believed to have started in November 2017.[61] By July 2018 48% of the state's counties had reported at least one case of hepatitis A, and the total number of suspected cases was 969 with six deaths (482 cases in Louisville, Kentucky).[62] By July 2019 the outbreak had reached 5,000 cases and 60 deaths, but had slowed to just a few new cases per month.[61]
Another widespread outbreak in the United States, the
See also
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