Herbert A. Simon
Herbert A. Simon | |
---|---|
Born | Herbert Alexander Simon June 15, 1916 |
Died | February 9, 2001 (aged 84) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. |
Education | University of Chicago (B.A., 1936; Ph.D., 1943) |
Known for | Bounded rationality Satisficing Information Processing Language Logic Theorist General Problem Solver |
Spouse | |
Children | 3 |
Awards |
|
Scientific career | |
Fields | |
Doctoral students | Edward Feigenbaum Allen Newell Richard Waldinger[3] John Muth William F. Pounds Oliver E. Williamson Saras Sarasvathy David Bree[4] |
Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 – February 9, 2001) was an American
Notably, Simon was among the pioneers of several modern-day scientific domains such as
Early life and education
Herbert Alexander Simon was born in
Simon attended Milwaukee Public Schools, where he developed an interest in science and established himself as an atheist. While attending middle school, Simon wrote a letter to "the editor of the Milwaukee Journal defending the civil liberties of atheists".[18] Unlike most children, Simon's family introduced him to the idea that human behavior could be studied scientifically; his mother's younger brother, Harold Merkel (1892–1922), who studied economics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison under John R. Commons, became one of his earliest influences. Through Harold's books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered social science. Among his earliest influences, Simon cited Norman Angell for his book The Great Illusion and Henry George for his book Progress and Poverty. While attending high school, Simon joined the debate team, where he argued "from conviction, rather than cussedness" in favor of George's single tax.[19]
In 1933, Simon entered the
Career
After receiving his undergraduate degree, Simon obtained a research assistantship in municipal administration that turned into the directorship of an operations research group at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked from 1939 to 1942. By arrangement with the University of Chicago, during his years at Berkeley, he took his doctoral exams by mail and worked on his dissertation after hours.
From 1942 to 1949, Simon was a professor of political science and also served as department chairman at
From 1949 to 2001, Simon was a faculty member at
Research
Seeking to replace the highly simplified classical approach to economic modeling, Simon became best known for his theory of corporate decision in his book
Decision-making
Administrative Behavior,[27] first published in 1947 and updated across the years, was based on Simon's doctoral dissertation.[28] It served as the foundation for his life's work. The centerpiece of this book is the behavioral and cognitive processes of humans making rational decisions. By his definition, an operational administrative decision should be correct, efficient, and practical to implement with a set of coordinated means.[28]
Simon recognized that a theory of administration is largely a theory of human decision making, and as such must be based on both economics and on psychology. He states:
[If] there were no limits to human rationality administrative theory would be barren. It would consist of the single precept: Always select that alternative, among those available, which will lead to the most complete achievement of your goals.[28] (p xxviii)
Contrary to the "homo economicus" model, Simon argued that alternatives and consequences may be partly known, and means and ends imperfectly differentiated, incompletely related, or poorly detailed.[28]
Simon defined the task of rational decision making as selecting the alternative that results in the more preferred set of all the possible consequences. Correctness of administrative decisions was thus measured by:
- Adequacy of achieving the desired objective
- Efficiency with which the result was obtained
The task of choice was divided into three required steps:[29]
- Identifying and listing all the alternatives
- Determining all consequences resulting from each of the alternatives;
- Comparing the accuracy and efficiency of each of these sets of consequences
Any given individual or organization attempting to implement this model in a real situation would be unable to comply with the three requirements. Simon argued that knowledge of all alternatives, or all consequences that follow from each alternative is impossible in many realistic cases.[27]
Simon attempted to determine the techniques and/or behavioral processes that a person or organization could bring to bear to achieve approximately the best result given limits on rational decision making.[28] Simon writes:
The human being striving for rationality and restricted within the limits of his knowledge has developed some working procedures that partially overcome these difficulties. These procedures consist in assuming that he can isolate from the rest of the world a closed system containing a limited number of variables and a limited range of consequences.[30]
Therefore, Simon describes work in terms of an economic framework, conditioned on human cognitive limitations: Economic man and Administrative man.
Administrative Behavior addresses a wide range of human behaviors, cognitive abilities, management techniques, personnel policies, training goals and procedures, specialized roles, criteria for evaluation of accuracy and efficiency, and all of the ramifications of communication processes. Simon is particularly interested in how these factors influence the making of decisions, both directly and indirectly.[27]
Simon argued that the two outcomes of a choice require monitoring and that many members of the organization would be expected to focus on adequacy, but that administrative management must pay particular attention to the efficiency with which the desired result was obtained.[27] 36-49
Simon followed Chester Barnard, who stated "the decisions that an individual makes as a member of an organization are quite distinct from his personal decisions".[31] Personal choices may be determined whether an individual joins a particular organization and continue to be made in his or her extra–organizational private life. As a member of an organization, however, that individual makes decisions not in relationship to personal needs and results, but in an impersonal sense as part of the organizational intent, purpose, and effect. Organizational inducements, rewards, and sanctions are all designed to form, strengthen, and maintain this identification.[27]212
Simon[28] saw two universal elements of human social behavior as key to creating the possibility of organizational behavior in human individuals: Authority (addressed in Chapter VII—The Role of Authority) and in Loyalties and Identification (Addressed in Chapter X: Loyalties, and Organizational Identification).
Authority is a well-studied, primary mark of organizational behavior, straightforwardly defined in the organizational context as the ability and right of an individual of higher rank to guide the decisions of an individual of lower rank. The actions, attitudes, and relationships of the dominant and subordinate individuals constitute components of role behavior that may vary widely in form, style, and content, but do not vary in the expectation of obedience by the one of superior status, and willingness to obey from the subordinate.[32]
Loyalty was defined by Simon as the "process whereby the individual substitutes organizational objectives (service objectives or conservation objectives) for his own aims as the value-indices which determine his organizational decisions".[33] This entailed evaluating alternative choices in terms of their consequences for the group rather than only for oneself or one's family.[34]
Decisions can be complex admixtures of facts and values. Information about facts, especially empirically proven facts or facts derived from specialized experience, are more easily transmitted in the exercise of authority than are the expressions of values. Simon is primarily interested in seeking identification of the individual employee with the organizational goals and values. Following Lasswell,[35] he states that "a person identifies himself with a group when, in making a decision, he evaluates the several alternatives of choice in terms of their consequences for the specified group".[36]
Simon has been critical of traditional economics' elementary understanding of decision-making, and argues it "is too quick to build an idealistic, unrealistic picture of the decision-making process and then prescribe on the basis of such unrealistic picture".[37]
Herbert Simon rediscovered path diagrams, which were originally invented by Sewall Wright around 1920.[38]
Artificial intelligence
Simon was a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, creating with Allen Newell the Logic Theory Machine (1956) and the General Problem Solver (GPS) (1957) programs. GPS may possibly be the first method developed for separating problem solving strategy from information about particular problems. Both programs were developed using the Information Processing Language (IPL) (1956) developed by Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Simon. Donald Knuth mentions the development of list processing in IPL, with the linked list originally called "NSS memory" for its inventors.[39] In 1957, Simon predicted that computer chess would surpass human chess abilities within "ten years" when, in reality, that transition took about forty years.[40] He also predicted in 1965 that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do."[41]
In the early 1960s psychologist
Simon also collaborated with
With
He was awarded the ACM Turing Award, along with Allen Newell, in 1975. "In joint scientific efforts extending over twenty years, initially in collaboration with J. C. (Cliff) Shaw at the RAND Corporation, and subsequentially [sic] with numerous faculty and student colleagues at Carnegie Mellon University, they have made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing."[9]
Psychology
Simon was interested in how humans learn and, with
Sociology and economics
Simon has been credited for revolutionary changes in microeconomics. He is responsible for the concept of organizational decision-making as it is known today. He was the first to rigorously examine how administrators made decisions when they did not have perfect and complete information. It was in this area that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.[50]
At the
Further, Simon emphasized that psychologists invoke a "procedural" definition of rationality, whereas economists employ a "substantive" definition. Gustavos Barros argued that the procedural rationality concept does not have a significant presence in the economics field and has never had nearly as much weight as the concept of bounded rationality.[51] However, in an earlier article, Bhargava (1997) noted the importance of Simon's arguments and emphasized that there are several applications of the "procedural" definition of rationality in econometric analyses of data on health. In particular, economists should employ "auxiliary assumptions" that reflect the knowledge in the relevant biomedical fields, and guide the specification of econometric models for health outcomes.
Simon was also known for his research on industrial organization.[52] He determined that the internal organization of firms and the external business decisions thereof, did not conform to the neoclassical theories of "rational" decision-making. Simon wrote many articles on the topic over the course of his life, mainly focusing on the issue of decision-making within the behavior of what he termed "bounded rationality". "Rational behavior, in economics, means that individuals maximize their utility function under the constraints they face (e.g., their budget constraint, limited choices, ...) in pursuit of their self-interest. This is reflected in the theory of subjective expected utility. The term, bounded rationality, is used to designate rational choice that takes into account the cognitive limitations of both knowledge and cognitive capacity. Bounded rationality is a central theme in behavioral economics. It is concerned with the ways in which the actual decision-making process influences decisions. Theories of bounded rationality relax one or more assumptions of standard expected utility theory".[53]
Simon determined that the best way to study these areas was through computer simulations. As such, he developed an interest in computer science. Simon's main interests in computer science were in artificial intelligence, human–computer interaction, principles of the organization of humans and machines as information processing systems, the use of computers to study (by modeling) philosophical problems of the nature of intelligence and of epistemology, and the social implications of computer technology.[54]
In his youth, Simon took an interest in
Some of Simon's economic research was directed toward understanding technological change in general and the information processing revolution in particular.[54]
Pedagogy
Simon's work has strongly influenced John Mighton, developer of a program that has achieved significant success in improving mathematics performance among elementary and high school students.[56] Mighton cites a 2000 paper by Simon and two coauthors that counters arguments by French mathematics educator, Guy Brousseau, and others suggesting that excessive practice hampers children's understanding:[56]
[The] criticism of practice (called "drill and kill," as if this phrase constituted empirical evaluation) is prominent in constructivist writings. Nothing flies more in the face of the last 20 years of research than the assertion that practice is bad. All evidence, from the laboratory and from extensive case studies of professionals, indicates that real competence only comes with extensive practice... In denying the critical role of practice one is denying children the very thing they need to achieve real competence. The instructional task is not to "kill" motivation by demanding drill, but to find tasks that provide practice while at the same time sustaining interest.
— John R. Anderson, Lynne M. Reder, and Herbert A. Simon, "Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology to mathematics education", Texas Educational Review 6 (2000)[57]
Awards and honors
Simon received many top-level honors in life, including becoming a fellow of the
- Honorary doctorate, Lund School of Economics and Management, 1968.[61]
- Honorary degree, University of Pavia, 1988.[62]
- Honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degree from Harvard University in 1990.[63]
- Honorary degree, University of Buenos Aires, 1999.[64]
Selected publications
Simon was a prolific writer and authored 27 books and almost a thousand papers. As of 2016[update], Simon was the most cited person in artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology on Google Scholar.[65] With almost a thousand highly cited publications, he was one of the most influential social scientists of the twentieth century.
Books
- 1947. Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization.
- – 4th ed. in 1997, The Free Press
- 1957. Models of Man. John Wiley. Presents mathematical models of human behaviour.
- 1958 (with James G. March and the collaboration of Harold Guetzkow). Organizations. New York: Wiley. the foundation of modern organization theory
- 1969. The Sciences of the Artificial. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1st edition. Made the idea easy to grasp: "objects (real or symbolic) in the environment of the decision-maker influence choice as much as the intrinsic information-processing capabilities of the decision-maker"; Explained "the principles of modeling complex systems, particularly the human information-processing system that we call the mind."
- - 2nd ed. in 1981, MIT Press. As stated in the Preface, the second edition provided the author an opportunity "to amend and expand [his] thesis and to apply it to several additional fields" beyond organization theory, economics, management science, and psychology that were covered in the previous edition.
- - 3rd ed. in 1996, MIT Press.
- 1972 (with Allen Newell). Human Problem Solving. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, (1972). "the most important book on the scientific study of human thinking in the 20th century"
- 1977. Models of Discovery : and other topics in the methods of science. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.
- 1979. Models of Thought, Vols. 1 and 2. Yale University Press. His papers on human information-processing and problem-solving.
- 1982. Models of Bounded Rationality, Vols. 1 and 2. MIT Press. His papers on economics.
- - Vol. 3. in 1997, MIT Press. His papers on economics since the publication of Vols. 1 and 2 in 1982. The papers grouped under the category "The Structure of Complex Systems"– dealing with issues such as causal ordering, decomposability, aggregation of variables, model abstraction– are of general interest in systems modelling, not just in economics.
- 1983. Reason in Human Affairs, Stanford University Press. A readable 115pp. book on human decision-making and information processing, based on lectures he gave at Stanford in 1982. A popular presentation of his technical work.
- 1987 (with P. Langley, G. Bradshaw, and J. Zytkow). Scientific Discovery: computational explorations of the creative processes. MIT Press.
- 1991. Models of My Life. Basic Books, Sloan Foundation Series. His autobiography.
- 1997. An Empirically Based Microeconomics. Cambridge University Press. A compact and readable summary of his criticisms of conventional "axiomatic" microeconomics, based on a lecture series.
- 2008 (posthumously). Economics, Bounded Rationality and the Cognitive Revolution. Edward Elgar Publishing, ISBN 1847208967. reprint some of his papers not widely read by economists.
Articles
- 1938 (with Clarence E. Ridley). Measuring Municipal Activities: a Survey of Suggested Criteria and Reporting Forms For Appraising Administration.
- 1943. Fiscal Aspects of Metropolitan Consolidation.
- 1945. The Technique of Municipal Administration, 2d ed.
- 1955. "A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice", Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 69, 99–118.
- 1956. "Reply: Surrogates for Uncertain Decision Problems", Office of Naval Research, January 1956.
- – Reprinted in 1982, In: H.A. Simon, Models of Bounded Rationality, Volume 1, Economic Analysis and Public Policy, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 235–44.
- 1958 (with J. C. Shaw). Elements of a theory of human problem solving[66]
- 1967. "Motivational and emotional controls of cognition", Psychological Review, vol. 74, 29–39, reprinted in Models of Thought Vol 1.
- 1972. "Theories of Bounded Rationality", Chapter 8 in C. B. McGuire and R. Radner, eds., Decision and Organization, Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
- 1980 (with K. Anders Ericsson). "Verbal reports as data", Psychological Review, vol. 87, 215–251.
- 1985 "Human Nature in Politics: The Dialogue of Psychology with Political Science", The American Political Science Review, vol. 79, no. 2 (Jun. 1985), pp. 293–304
- 1989 (with M.J. Prietula). "The Experts in Your Midst", Harvard Business Review, January–February, 120–124.
- 1992 'What is an "Explanation" of Behavior?' Psychological Science, 3(3), 150-161
- 1995 (with Peter C.-H. Cheng). "Scientific discovery and creative reasoning with diagrams", in S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward & R. A. Finke (Eds.), The Creative Cognition Approach (pp. 205–228). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- 1998 (with John R. Anderson, Lynne M. Reder, K. Anders Ericsson, and Robert Glaser). "Radical Constructivism and Cognitive Psychology", Brookings Papers on Education Policy, no. 1, 227–278.
- 2000 (with John R. Anderson and Lynne M. Reder). "Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology to mathematics education", Texas Education Review, vol. 1, no. 2, 29–49.
Personal life and interests
Simon married Dorothea Pye in 1938. Their marriage lasted 63 years until his death. In January 2001, Simon underwent surgery at UPMC Presbyterian to remove a cancerous tumor in his abdomen. Although the surgery was successful, Simon later died from the complications that followed. They had three children, Katherine, Peter, and Barbara. His wife died a year later in 2002.[5]
From 1950 to 1955, Simon studied mathematical economics and during this time, together with
Simon was a pianist and had a keen interest in the arts. He was a friend of
See also
References
Citations
- ^ a b Herbert Simon, "Autobiography", in Nobel Lectures, Economics 1969–1980, Editor Assar Lindbeck, World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1992.
- ^ Forest, Joelle, "John R. Commons and Herbert A. Simon on the Concept of Rationality", Journal of Economic Issues Vol. XXXV, 3 (2001), pp. 591–605
- ^ "Herbert Alexander Simon". AI Genealogy Project. Archived from the original on April 30, 2012. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
- ^ https://www.cs.man.ac.uk/~dbree/fullcv.pdf.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - ^ a b "Dorothea Simon Obituary - Pittsburgh, PA - Post-Gazette.com". Post-Gazette.com. Retrieved August 8, 2015.
- ^ a b "Guru: Herbert Simon". The Economist. March 20, 2009. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
- S2CID 249320959.
- ^ "The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1978". NobelPrize.org.
- ^ a b Heyck, Hunter. "Herbert A. Simon - A.M. Turing Award Laureate". amturing.acm.org.
- ^ S2CID 180480666.
Studies and models of decision-making are the themes that unify most of Simon's contributions.
- ^ Simon, Herbert A. (1978). Assar Lindbeck (ed.). Nobel Lectures, Economics 1969–1980. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Retrieved May 22, 2012.
- ^ Simon, H. A., 1955, Biometrika 42, 425.
- ^ B. Mandelbrot, "A Note on a Class of Skew Distribution Functions, Analysis and Critique of a Paper by H. Simon", Information and Control, 2 (1959), p. 90
- ^ Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America by Hunter Crowther-Heyck, (JHU 2005), page 25.
- ^ Simon 1991, p.3, 23
- ^ Simon 1991 p. 20
- ^ Simon 1991 p.3
- ISBN 9780801880254.
His secular, scientific values came well before he was old enough to make such calculating career decisions. For example, while still in middle school, Simon wrote a letter to the editor of the Milwaukee Journal defending the civil liberties of atheists, and by high school, he was "certain" that he was "religiously an atheist", a conviction that never wavered.
- ^ a b Velupillai, Kumaraswamy. Computable Economics: The Arne Ryde Memorial Lectures. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
- ^ Simon 1991 p. 39
- ^ Augier & March 2001
- ^ Simon 1991 p. 64
- ^ a b c d "Herbert A. Simon – Biographical". nobelprize.org. Retrieved December 1, 2016.
- ^ Simon 1991 p. 136
- ^ "Princeton University, Department Of Philosophy, Faculty Since 1949", at philosophy.princeton.edu accessed 2014-Oct-13
- JSTOR 343945.
- ^ a b c d e C. Barnard and H. A. Simon. (1947). Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-making Processes in Administrative Organization. Macmillan, New York.
- ^ a b c d e f Simon 1976
- ^ Simon 1976, p. 67
- ^ Simon 1976, p. 82
- ^ Barnard 1938, p. 77 cited by Simon 1976, pp. 202–203
- ISBN 978-1-4391-3606-5.
- ^ Simon 1976, pp. 218
- ^ Simon 1976, pp. 206
- ^ Lasswell 1935, pp. 29–51 cited by Simon 1976, pp. 205
- ^ Simon 1976, p. 205
- ^ Simon, Herbert. https://www.ubs.com/microsites/nobel-perspectives/en/herbert-simon.html
- ISBN 978-0465097609.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ^ Volume 1 of The Art of Computer Programming
- ^ Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI October 30, 2002
- ^ Machines Will Be Capable, Within Twenty Years, of Doing Any Work That a Man Can Do
- ^ Herbert A. Simon, A Theory of Emotional Behavior Archived December 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Carnegie Mellon University Complex Information Processing (CIP) Working Paper #55, June 1, 1963.
- ^ Herbert A. Simon, "Motivational and Emotional Controls of Cognition" Archived December 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Psychological Review, 1967, Vol. 74, No. 1, 29-39.
- ^ Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, Human Problem Solving, 1972
- ^ K. A. Ericsson and H. A. Simon, Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data, 1993
- Cognitive PsychologyVolume 4, 1973
- doi:10.1016/s0364-0213(84)80005-1 (inactive January 31, 2024).)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link - .
- S2CID 10577260.
- ^ "Press Release: Studies of Decision-Making Lead to Prize in Economics". Nobelprize.org. October 16, 1978. Retrieved May 11, 2014.
- S2CID 8481653.
- S2CID 201323442.
- ISBN 978-0-333-49541-4.
- ^ a b "Computer Pioneers - Herbert A. Simon". history.computer.org. Retrieved November 10, 2022.
- ^ Simon, Herbert. "Letter to the Pittsburgh City Council", December 13, 1979. Archived in the Herbert A. Simon Collected Papers, Carnegie Mellon University Library. Quote: "It is clearly preferable to impose the additional cost on land by increasing the land tax, rather than to increase the wage tax"
- ^ TVOntario, broadcast 1:30 a.m., November 6, 2010.
- ^ "Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology to mathematics education", Texas Educational Review 6 (2000)
- ^ American Academy of Arts and Sciences 2012 Book of Members/ChapterS, amacad.org
- ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved December 6, 2022.
- ^ National Academy of Sciences. Nas.nasonline.org. Retrieved on September 23, 2013.
- ^ "Honorary doctors at Lund School og Economics and Management". Lund University. Archived from the original on September 5, 2014. Retrieved September 4, 2014.
- ^ interview with Ted Lowi (subsequent Cornell recipient of an Honorary degree from the University of Pavia), at news.cornell.edu
- ^ Whitney, Craig R. (June 8, 1990). "KOHL, AT HARVARD, REAFFIRMS BORDER". The New York Times. Retrieved February 14, 2024.
- ^ "Publicaciones, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Boletín Informativo". Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas. Retrieved June 6, 2015.
- ^ "Herbert a Simon". Archived from the original on January 17, 2017. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
- S2CID 61618872.
- ^ "PR_Robert_Lepper_Artist_Teacher.pdf" (PDF). Archived from the original on June 26, 2006. Retrieved May 31, 2008.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Home - Carnegie Mellon University Libraries". Archived from the original on July 18, 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2015.
Sources
- Barnard, C.I. (1938), The Functions of the Executive, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
- Lasswell, H.D. (1935), World Politics and Personal Insecurity, New York, NY: Whittlesey House
- Simon, Herbert (1976), Administrative Behavior (3rd ed.), New York, NY: The Free Press
- Simon, Herbert (1991), Models of My Life, USA: Basic Books
- Simon, Herbert A. 'Organizations and markets', Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 5, no. 2 (1991), pp. 25–44.
- Augier, Mie; March, James (2001). "Remembering Herbert A. Simon (1916-2001)". Public Administration Review. 61 (4): 396–402. JSTOR 977501.
Further reading
- Bhargava, Alok (1997). "Editor's introduction: Analysis of data on health". Journal of Econometrics. 77: 1–4. .
- Courtois, P.J., 1977. Decomposability: queueing and computer system applications. New York: Academic Press. Courtois was influenced by the work of Simon and Albert Ando on hierarchical nearly-decomposable systems in economic modelling as a criterion for computer systems design, and in this book he presents the mathematical theory of these nearly-decomposable systems in more detail than Simon and Ando do in their original papers.
- Frantz, R., and Marsh, L. (Eds.) (2016). Minds, Models and Milieux: Commemorating the Centennial of the Birth of Herbert Simon. Palgrave Macmillan.
External links
- Herbert Alexander Simon at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- Herbert Alexander Simon at the AI Genealogy Project.
- A Tribute to Herbert A. Simon
- Full-text digital archive of Herbert Simon papers
- Mind Models online Artificial Intelligence exhibit
- pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations
- History of Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science BOOK VIII: Herbert Simon, Paul Thagard and Others on Discovery Systems – with free downloads for public use.
- — (December 12, 1962). "The Architecture of Complexity" (PDF). Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 106 (6): 467–482. JSTOR 985254. Archived from the original(PDF) on March 10, 2009. Retrieved February 23, 2010.
- IDEAS/RePEc
- "Herbert Alexander Simon (1901–1985)". Library of Economics and Liberty (2nd ed.). Liberty Fund. 2008.
- Biography of Herbert A. Simon from the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences
- Documentary interviews with Herbert Simon, with critiques of his work, as part of the Nobel Perspectives project
- Herbert Simon on Nobelprize.org including the Prize Lecture December 8, 1978 Rational Decision-Making in Business Organizations