Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
Mechanical adaptations
Herbivores have developed a diverse range of physical structures to facilitate the consumption of plant material. To break up intact plant tissues, mammals have developed
A herbivore's diet often shapes its feeding adaptations.
Biochemical adaptations
Herbivores generate
An important enzyme produced by herbivorous insects is
Herbivores may also produce
Behavioral adaptations
Herbivores can avoid plant defenses by eating plants selectively in space and time. For the
Plant defense may explain, in part, why herbivores employ different life history strategies.
One major example of herbivorous behavioral adaptations deals with introduced insecticides and pesticides. The introduction of new herbicides and pesticides only selects for insects that can ultimately avoid or utilize these chemicals over time. Adding toxin free plants to a population of transgenic plants, or genetically modified plants that produce their own insecticides, has been shown to minimize the rate of evolution in insects feeding on crop plants. But even so, the rate of adaptation is only increasing in these insects.[21]
Microbial symbionts
Herbivores are unable to digest complex
Host manipulation
Herbivores often manipulate their host plants to use them better as resources. Herbivorous insects favorably alter the
Some herbivores use feeding behaviors that are capable of disarming the defenses of their host plants. One such plant defensive strategy is the use of latex and resin canals that contain sticky toxins and digestibility reducers. These canal systems store fluids under pressure, and when ruptured (i.e. from herbivory) secondary metabolic products flow to the release point.[30] Herbivores can evade this defense, however, by damaging the leaf veins. This technique minimizes the outflow of latex or resin beyond the cut and allows herbivores to freely feed above the damaged section. Several strategies are employed by herbivores to relieve canal pressure, including vein cutting and trenching. Vein cutting is when a herbivore creates small openings along the length of the leaf vein, while trenching refers to the creation of a cut across the width the leaf allowing the individual to safely consume the separated portion.[31] There is also a third technique known as girdling where a folivore will create an incision going around the stem disconnecting the leaf from the canals in the rest of the plant.[31] The technique used by the herbivore corresponds to the architecture of the canal system.[32] Dussourd and Denno examined the behavior of 33 species of insect herbivores on 10 families of plants with canals and found that herbivores on plants with branching canal systems used vein cutting, while herbivores found on plants with net-like canal systems employed trenching to evade plant defenses.[32]
Herbivore use of plant chemicals
Plant chemical defenses can be used by herbivores, by storing eaten plant chemicals, and using them in defense against
Secondary metabolic products can also be useful to herbivores due to the antibiotic properties of the toxins, which can protect herbivores against
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Further reading
- Rosenthal, Gerald A., & ISBN 0-12-597180-X)
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