Hermann Göring
Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring | |
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16th President of the Reichstag | |
In office 30 August 1932 – 23 April 1945 | |
President | Paul von Hindenburg (1932–1934) |
Führer | Adolf Hitler (1934–1945) |
Chancellor |
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Preceded by | Paul Löbe |
Succeeded by | Office abolished
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Oberster SA-Führer | |
Personal details | |
Born | Hermann Wilhelm Göring 12 January 1893 Nuremberg Prison, Nuremberg, Allied-occupied Germany |
Cause of death | Suicide by cyanide poisoning |
Political party | Nazi Party (1922–1945) |
Spouses | |
Children | Edda Göring |
Parents |
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Relatives | University of Munich |
Occupation |
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Cabinet | Hitler cabinet |
Signature | |
Military service | |
Allegiance | |
Branch/service | |
Years of service |
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Rank |
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Trial | Nuremberg trials |
Criminal penalty | Death |
Hermann Wilhelm Göring (or Goering;[a] German: [ˈhɛʁman ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈɡøːʁɪŋ] ⓘ; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader, and convicted war criminal. He was one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi Party, which governed Germany from 1933 to 1945.
A veteran
Following the establishment of the Nazi state, Göring amassed power and political capital to become the second most powerful man in Germany. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe (air force), a position he held until the final days of the regime. Upon being named Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan in 1936, Göring was entrusted with the task of mobilizing all sectors of the economy for war, an assignment which brought numerous government agencies under his control. In September 1939, Hitler gave a speech to the Reichstag designating him as his successor. After the Fall of France in 1940, he was bestowed the specially created rank of Reichsmarschall, which gave him seniority over all officers in Germany's armed forces.
By 1941, Göring was at the peak of his power and influence. As the
Early life and education
Göring was born on 12 January 1893[4] at the Marienbad Sanatorium in Rosenheim, Bavaria. His father, Heinrich Ernst Göring (31 October 1839 – 7 December 1913), a former cavalry officer, had been the first governor-general of German South West Africa (modern-day Namibia).[5] Heinrich had three children from a previous marriage. Göring was the fourth of five children by Heinrich's second wife, Franziska Tiefenbrunn (1859–15 July 1943), a Bavarian peasant. Göring's elder siblings were Karl, Olga, and Paula; his younger brother was Albert. At the time that Göring was born, his father was serving as consul general in Haiti, and his mother had returned home briefly to give birth. She left the six-week-old baby with a friend in Bavaria and did not see the child again for three years, when she and Heinrich returned to Germany.[6]
Göring's godfather was Hermann Epenstein , a wealthy Jewish physician and businessman his father had met in Africa. Epenstein provided the Göring family, who were surviving on Heinrich's pension, first with a family home in Berlin-Friedenau,[7] and then a small castle called Veldenstein, near Nuremberg. Göring's mother became Epenstein's mistress around this time and remained so for some fifteen years. Epenstein acquired the minor title of Ritter (knight) von Epenstein through service and donations to the Crown.[8]
Interested in a career as a soldier from a very early age, Göring enjoyed playing with toy soldiers and dressing up in a
Göring joined the Prince Wilhelm Regiment (112th Infantry, Garrison:
World War I
During the first year of World War I, Göring served with his infantry regiment in the area of
After completing the pilot's training course, Göring was assigned to Jagdstaffel 5. Seriously wounded in the hip in aerial combat, he took nearly a year to recover. He then was transferred to Jagdstaffel 26, commanded by Loerzer, in February 1917. He steadily scored air victories until May, when he was assigned to command Jagdstaffel 27. Serving with Jastas 5, 26 and 27, he continued to win victories. In addition to his Iron Crosses (1st and 2nd Class), he received the Zähringer Lion with swords, the Friedrich Order, the House Order of Hohenzollern with swords third class, and finally, in May 1918, the coveted Pour le Mérite.[13] According to Hermann Dahlmann, who knew both men, Göring had Loerzer lobby for the award.[14] He finished the war with 22 victories.[15] A thorough post-war examination of Allied loss records showed that only two of his awarded victories were doubtful. Three were possible and 17 were certain, or highly likely.[16]
On 7 July 1918, following the death of
In the last days of the war, Göring was repeatedly ordered to withdraw his squadron, first to Tellancourt airdrome, then to Darmstadt. At one point, he was ordered to surrender the aircraft to the Allies; he refused. Many of his pilots intentionally crash-landed their planes to keep them from falling into enemy hands.[19]
Like many other German veterans, Göring was a proponent of the stab-in-the-back myth, the belief which held that the German Army had not really lost the war, but instead was betrayed by the civilian leadership: Marxists, Jews, and especially the republicans, who had overthrown the German monarchy.[20] Atop the frustration of military defeat, Göring also experienced the personal disappointment of being snubbed by his fiancée's upper-class family, who broke off the engagement when he returned penniless from the front.[21]
After World War I
Göring remained in aviation after the war. He tried
This was also the first time that Göring saw his future wife; the count introduced his sister-in-law, Baroness
Early Nazi career
Göring joined the Nazi Party in 1922 after hearing a speech by Hitler.
I liked him. I made him the head of my SA. He is the only one of its heads that ran the SA properly. I gave him a dishevelled rabble. In a very short time he had organised a division of 11,000 men.[29]
Hitler and the Nazi Party held mass meetings and rallies in Munich and elsewhere during the early 1920s, attempting to gain supporters in a bid for political power.[30] Inspired by Benito Mussolini's March on Rome, the Nazis attempted to seize power on 8–9 November 1923 in a failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch. Göring, who was with Hitler leading the march to the War Ministry, was shot in the groin.[31] Fourteen Nazis and four policemen were killed; many top Nazis, including Hitler, were arrested.[32] With Carin's help, Göring was smuggled to Innsbruck, where he received surgery and was given morphine for the pain. He remained in hospital until 24 December.[33] This was the beginning of his morphine addiction, which lasted until his imprisonment at Nuremberg.[34] Meanwhile, the authorities in Munich declared Göring a wanted man. The Görings—acutely short of funds and reliant on the good will of Nazi sympathizers abroad—moved from Austria to Venice. In May 1924 they visited Rome, via Florence and Siena. Sometime in 1924, Göring met Mussolini through his contacts with members of Italy's Fascist Party;[35] Mussolini had also expressed an interest in meeting Hitler, who was by then in prison.[36] Hitler penned Mein Kampf while incarcerated, before being released in December 1924.[37]
Meanwhile, personal problems continued to multiply for Göring. By 1925, Carin's mother was ill. The Görings—with difficulty—raised the money in the spring of 1925 for a journey to Sweden via Austria,
Meanwhile, the Nazi Party was in a period of rebuilding and waiting. The economy had recovered, which meant fewer opportunities for the Nazis to agitate. The SA was reorganised, but with Franz Pfeffer von Salomon as its head rather than Göring, and the Schutzstaffel (SS) was founded in 1925, initially as a bodyguard for Hitler. Membership in the party increased from 27,000 in 1925 to 108,000 in 1928 and 178,000 in 1929. In the May 1928 elections the Nazi Party only obtained 12 seats out of an available 491 in the Reichstag.[42] Göring was elected as a representative from Bavaria.[43] Having secured a seat in the Reichstag, Göring gained a more prominent place in the Nazi movement, since Hitler saw him as a public relations officer for Nazism in this capacity.[44] Göring continued to be elected to the Reichstag in all subsequent elections during the Weimar and Nazi regimes.[45] Electoral success also afforded Göring with access to powerful sympathizers to the Nazi cause, such as Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia and the conservative-minded businessmen, Fritz Thyssen and Hjalmar Schacht.[46] The Great Depression led to a disastrous downturn in the German economy, and in the 1930 election, the Nazi Party won 6,409,600 votes and 107 seats.[47][c] In May 1931, Hitler sent Göring on a mission to the Vatican, where he met the future Pope Pius XII.[49]
In the July 1932 election, the Nazis won 230 seats to become far and away the largest party in the Reichstag. By longstanding tradition, the Nazis were thus entitled to select the President of the Reichstag, and elected Göring to the post.[50] He would retain this position until 23 April 1945.
Reichstag fire
The Reichstag fire occurred on the night of 27 February 1933. Göring was one of the first to arrive on the scene. Marinus van der Lubbe, a Communist radical, was arrested and claimed sole responsibility for the fire. Göring immediately called for a crackdown on Communists.[51]
The Nazis took advantage of the fire to advance their own political aims. The Reichstag Fire Decree, passed the next day on Hitler's urging, suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed, and some 4,000 Party members were arrested.[52] Göring demanded that the prisoners should be shot, but Rudolf Diels, head of the Prussian political police, ignored the order.[53] Some researchers, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the Nazi Party itself was responsible for starting the fire.[54][55]
At the Nuremberg trials, General Franz Halder testified that Göring admitted responsibility for starting the fire. He said that, at a luncheon held on Hitler's birthday in 1942, Göring said, "The only one who really knows about the Reichstag is I, because I set it on fire!"[56] In his own Nuremberg testimony, Göring denied this story.[57]
Second marriage
During the early 1930s, Göring was often in the company of Emmy Sonnemann, an actress from Hamburg.[58] They were married on 10 April 1935, in Berlin. The wedding was celebrated on a huge scale. A large reception was held the night before at the Berlin Opera House. Fighter aircraft flew overhead on the night of the reception and the day of the ceremony,[59] at which Hitler was best man.[60] Göring's daughter, Edda, was born on 2 June 1938.[61]
Nazi potentate
Part of a series on |
Nazism |
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When Hitler was named
Wilhelm Frick, the Reich interior minister, and the head of the SS, Heinrich Himmler, hoped to create a unified police force for all of Germany, but Göring on 26 April 1933 established a special Prussian police force, with Rudolf Diels at its head. The force was called the Geheime Staatspolizei (transl. Secret State Police), or Gestapo. Göring, thinking that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA, handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934.[68] By this time, the SA numbered over two million men.[69]
Hitler was deeply concerned that Ernst Röhm, the chief of the SA, was planning a coup. Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich plotted with Göring to use the Gestapo and SS to crush the SA.[70] Members of the SA got wind of the proposed action and thousands of them took to the streets in violent demonstrations on the night of 29 June 1934. Enraged, Hitler ordered the arrest of the SA leadership. Röhm was shot dead in his cell when he refused to commit suicide; Göring personally went over the lists of prisoners—numbering in the thousands—and determined who else should be shot. At least 85 people were killed in the period of 30 June to 2 July, which is now known as the Night of the Long Knives.[71] Hitler admitted in the Reichstag on 13 July that the killings had been entirely illegal but claimed a plot had been under way to overthrow the Reich. A retroactive law was passed making the action legal. Any criticism was met with arrests.[72]
One of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which had been in place since the end of World War I, stated that Germany was not allowed to maintain an air force. After the 1928 signing of the Kellogg–Briand Pact, police aircraft were permitted. Göring was appointed Air Traffic Minister in May 1933. Germany began to accumulate aircraft in violation of the Treaty, and in 1935 the existence of the Luftwaffe was formally acknowledged,[73] with Göring as Reich Aviation Minister.[74]
During a cabinet meeting in September 1936, Göring and Hitler announced that the German rearmament programme must be sped up. On 18 October, Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan to undertake this task. Göring created a new organisation to administer the Plan and drew the ministries of labour and agriculture under its umbrella. He bypassed the Economics Ministry in his policy-making decisions, to the chagrin of Hjalmar Schacht, the minister in charge. Huge expenditures were made on rearmament, in spite of growing deficits.[75] Schacht resigned on 26 November 1937, and Göring took over the Economics Ministry on an interim basis until January 1938.[76] He then managed to install Walther Funk in the position, who also took control of the Reichsbank when Schacht was forced out of that post as well in January 1939. In this way, both of these institutions effectively were brought under Göring's control under the auspices of the Four Year Plan.[77] In July 1937, the Reichswerke Hermann Göring was established under state ownership – though led by Göring – with the aim of boosting steel production beyond the level which private enterprise could economically provide.[78]
In 1938, Göring was involved in the
As minister in charge of the Four-Year Plan, Göring became concerned with the lack of natural resources in Germany and began pushing for Austria to be incorporated into the Reich. The province of Styria had rich iron ore deposits, and the country as a whole was home to many skilled labourers who would also be useful. Hitler had always been in favour of a takeover of Austria, his native country. He met the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg on 12 February 1938, threatening invasion if peaceful unification was not forthcoming. The Nazi Party was made legal in Austria to gain a power base, and a referendum on reunification was scheduled for March. When Hitler did not approve of the wording of the plebiscite, Göring telephoned Schuschnigg and Austrian head of state Wilhelm Miklas to demand Schuschnigg's resignation, threatening invasion by German troops and civil unrest by the Austrian Nazi Party members. Schuschnigg resigned on 11 March and the plebiscite was cancelled. By 5:30 the next morning, German troops that had been massing on the border marched into Austria, meeting no resistance.[82]
Although
Although many in the party disliked him,[86] before the war Göring enjoyed widespread personal popularity among the German public because of his perceived sociability, colour and humour.[87][88] As the Nazi leader most responsible for economic matters, he presented himself as a champion of national interests over allegedly corrupt big business and the old German elite. The Nazi press was on Göring's side. Other leaders, such as Hess and Ribbentrop, were envious of his popularity.[87] In Britain and the United States, some viewed Göring as more acceptable than the other Nazis and as a possible mediator between the western democracies and Hitler.[88]
World War II
Success on all fronts
Göring and other senior officers were concerned that Germany was not yet ready for war, but Hitler insisted on pushing ahead as soon as possible.
After the
The UK had declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, the third day of the invasion of Poland.[98] In July 1940, Hitler began preparations for an invasion of Britain. As part of the plan, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had to be neutralized. Bombing raids commenced on British air installations and on cities and centres of industry.[99] Göring had by then already announced in a radio speech, "If as much as a single enemy aircraft flies over German soil, my name is Meier!",[100] something that would return to haunt him, when the RAF began bombing German cities on 11 May 1940.[101] Though he was confident the Luftwaffe could defeat the RAF within days, Göring, like Admiral Erich Raeder, commander-in-chief of the Kriegsmarine (navy),[102] was pessimistic about the chance of success of the planned invasion (codenamed Operation Sea Lion).[103] Göring hoped that a victory in the air would be enough to force peace without an invasion. The campaign failed, and Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September 1940.[104] After their defeat in the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe attempted to defeat Britain via strategic bombing. On 12 October 1940 Hitler cancelled Sea Lion due to the onset of winter.[105] By the end of the year, it was clear that British morale was not being shaken by the Blitz, though the bombings continued through May 1941.[106]
Defeat on all fronts
In spite of the
In late October or early November 1941, Hitler and Göring decided on the mass deportation of Soviet prisoners of war—and a larger number of Soviet civilians—to Germany for forced labor, but epidemics soon caused the halting of prisoner-of-war transports.[112][113] Those who were deported to Germany faced conditions not necessarily any better than existed in the occupied Soviet Union.[114] By the end of the war, at least 1.3 million Soviet prisoners of war had been deported to Germany or its annexed territories.[115] Of these, 400,000 did not survive and most of these deaths occurred in the winter of 1941/1942.[115]
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Göring, along with Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and Admiral Erich Raeder, urged Hitler to immediately declare war on the United States.[116]
Hitler decided that the summer 1942 campaign would be concentrated in the south; efforts would be made to capture the oilfields in the Caucasus.[117] The Battle of Stalingrad, a major turning point of the war,[118] began on 23 August 1942 with a bombing campaign by the Luftwaffe.[119] The German Sixth Army entered the city, but because of its location on the front line, it was still possible for the Soviets to encircle and trap it there without reinforcements or supplies. When the Sixth Army was surrounded by the end of November in Operation Uranus, Göring promised that the Luftwaffe would be able to deliver a minimum of 300 tons of supplies to the trapped men every day. On the basis of these assurances, Hitler demanded that there be no retreat; they were to fight to the last man. Though some airlifts were able to get through, supplies delivered never exceeded 120 tons per day.[120][121] The remnants of the Sixth Army—some 91,000 men out of an army of 285,000—surrendered in early February 1943; only 5,000 of these captives survived the Soviet prisoner of war camps to see Germany again.[122]
War over Germany
Meanwhile, the strength of the US and British bomber fleets had increased. Based in Britain, they began operations against German targets. The first thousand-bomber raid was staged on Cologne on 30 May 1942.[123] Air raids continued on targets farther from England after auxiliary fuel tanks were installed on US fighter aircraft. Göring refused to believe reports that American fighters had been shot down as far east as Aachen in winter 1942–1943. His reputation began to decline.[124]
The American
End of the war
As the Soviets approached Berlin, Hitler's efforts to organise the defence of the city became ever more meaningless and futile.[130] His last birthday, celebrated at the Führerbunker in Berlin on 20 April 1945, was the occasion for leave-taking by many top Nazis, Göring included. By this time, Göring's hunting lodge Carinhall had been evacuated, the building destroyed,[131] and its art treasures moved to Berchtesgaden and elsewhere.[132] Göring arrived at his estate at Obersalzberg on 22 April, the same day that Hitler, in a lengthy diatribe against his generals, first publicly admitted that the war was lost and that he intended to remain in Berlin to the end and then commit suicide.[133] He also stated that Göring was in a better position to negotiate a peace settlement.[134]
OKW operations chief Alfred Jodl was present for Hitler's rant, and notified Göring's chief of staff, Karl Koller, at a meeting a few hours later. Sensing its implications, Koller immediately flew to Berchtesgaden to notify Göring of this development. A week after the start of the Soviet invasion, Hitler had issued a decree naming Göring his successor in the event of his death, thus codifying the declaration he had made soon after the beginning of the war. The decree also gave Göring full authority to act as Hitler's deputy if Hitler ever lost his freedom of action.[134]
Göring feared being branded a traitor if he tried to take power, but also feared being accused of dereliction of duty if he did nothing. After some hesitation, Göring reviewed his copy of the 1941 decree naming him Hitler's successor. After conferring with Koller and Hans Lammers (the state secretary of the Reich Chancellery), Göring concluded that by remaining in Berlin to face certain death, Hitler had incapacitated himself from governing. All agreed that under the terms of the decree, it was incumbent upon Göring to take power in Hitler's stead.[135] He was also motivated by fears that his rival, Martin Bormann, would seize power upon Hitler's death and would have him killed as a traitor. With this in mind, Göring sent a carefully worded telegram asking Hitler for permission to take over as the leader of Germany, stressing that he would be acting as Hitler's deputy. He added that, if Hitler did not reply by 22:00 that night (23 April), he would assume that Hitler had indeed lost his freedom of action and would assume leadership of the Reich.[136]
The telegram was intercepted by Bormann, who convinced Hitler that Göring was a traitor. Bormann argued that Göring's telegram was not a request for permission to act as Hitler's deputy, but a demand to resign or be overthrown.[137] Bormann also intercepted another telegram in which Göring directed Ribbentrop to report to him if there was no further communication from Hitler or Göring before midnight.[138] Hitler sent a reply to Göring—prepared with Bormann's help—rescinding the 1941 decree and threatening him with execution for high treason unless he immediately resigned from all of his offices. Göring duly resigned. Afterwards, Hitler (or Bormann, depending on the source) ordered the SS to place Göring, his staff, and Lammers under house arrest at Obersalzberg.[137][139] Bormann made an announcement over the radio that Göring had resigned for health reasons.[140]
By 26 April, the complex at Obersalzberg
Trial and death
Göring was flown to Camp Ashcan, a temporary prisoner-of-war camp housed in the Palace Hotel at Mondorf-les-Bains, Luxembourg. Here he was weaned off dihydrocodeine (a mild morphine derivative)—he had been taking the equivalent of three or four grains (260 to 320 mg) of morphine a day—and was put on a strict diet; he lost 60 pounds (27 kg). His IQ was tested while in custody and found to be 138.[146] Top Nazi officials were transferred in September to Nuremberg, which was to be the location of a series of military tribunals beginning in November.[147]
Göring was the second highest-ranking official tried at Nuremberg, behind Reich President (former Admiral) Karl Dönitz. The prosecution levelled an indictment of four charges, including a charge of conspiracy; waging a war of aggression; war crimes, including the plundering and removal to Germany of works of art and other property; and crimes against humanity, including the disappearance of political and other opponents under the Nacht und Nebel (transl. Night and Fog) decree; the torture and ill treatment of prisoners of war; and the murder and enslavement of civilians, including what was at the time estimated to be 5,700,000 Jews. Not permitted to present a lengthy statement, Göring declared himself to be "in the sense of the indictment not guilty".[148]
The trial lasted 218 days. The prosecution presented its case from November through March, and Göring's defence—the first to be presented—lasted from 8 to 22 March. The sentences were read on 30 September 1946.[149] Göring, forced to remain silent while seated in the dock, communicated his opinions about the proceedings using gestures, shaking his head, or laughing. He constantly took notes and whispered with the other defendants, and tried to control the erratic behaviour of Hess, who was seated beside him.[150] During breaks in the proceedings, Göring tried to dominate the other defendants, and he was eventually placed in solitary confinement when he attempted to influence their testimony.[151] Göring told American psychiatrist Leon Goldensohn that the court was "stupid" to try "little fellows" like Funk and Kaltenbrunner instead of letting Göring take all the blame on himself.[152] He also claimed that he had never heard of most of the other defendants before the trial.[152]
On several occasions over the course of the trial, the prosecution showed films of the
Göring was found guilty on all four counts and was sentenced to death by hanging. The judgment stated:
There is nothing to be said in mitigation. For Göring was often, indeed almost always, the moving force, second only to his leader. He was the leading war aggressor, both as political and as military leader; he was the director of the slave labour programme and the creator of the oppressive programme against the Jews and other races, at home and abroad. All of these crimes he has frankly admitted. On some specific cases there may be conflict of testimony, but in terms of the broad outline, his own admissions are more than sufficiently wide to be conclusive of his guilt. His guilt is unique in its enormity. The record discloses no excuses for this man.[158]
Göring made an appeal asking to be shot as a soldier instead of hanged as a common criminal, but the court refused.[159] He committed suicide with a potassium cyanide capsule the night before he was to be hanged.[160]
Speculation as to how Göring obtained the poison holds that US Army lieutenant Jack G. Wheelis, who was stationed at the trials, retrieved the capsules from their hiding place among Göring's confiscated personal effects and passed them to Göring,
Göring's body, as with those of the men who were executed, was displayed at the execution ground for witnesses. The bodies were cremated at Ostfriedhof, Munich, and the ashes were scattered in the Isar River.[164][165][166]
Personal properties
Göring's name is closely associated with the Nazi plunder of Jewish property. His name appears 135 times on the OSS Art Looting Investigation Unit (ALIU) Red Flag Names List[167] compiled by US Army intelligence in 1945-6 and declassified in 1997.[168]
The confiscation of Jewish property gave Göring the opportunity to amass a personal fortune. Some properties he seized himself or acquired for a nominal price. In other cases, he collected bribes for allowing others to steal Jewish property. He took
Göring was appointed Reich Master of the Hunt in 1933 and Master of the German Forests in 1934. He instituted reforms to the forestry laws and acted to protect endangered species. Around this time, he became interested in
Göring was known for his extravagant tastes and garish clothing. He had various special uniforms made for the many posts he held;
Göring was noted for his patronage of music, especially opera. He entertained frequently and sumptuously and hosted elaborate birthday parties for himself.[180] Armaments minister Albert Speer recalled that guests brought expensive gifts such as gold bars, Dutch cigars, and valuable artwork. For his birthday in 1944, Speer gave Göring an oversized marble bust of Hitler.[181] As a member of the Prussian Council of State, Speer was required to donate a considerable portion of his salary towards the council's birthday gift to Göring without even being asked. Generalfeldmarschall Erhard Milch told Speer that similar donations were required out of the Air Ministry's general fund.[182] For his birthday in 1940, Ciano decorated Göring with the coveted Collar of Annunziata. The award reduced him to tears.[183]
The design of the Reichsmarschall standard, on a light blue field, featured a gold
Though he liked to be called "der Eiserne" (transl. the Iron Man), the once dashing and muscular fighter pilot had become corpulent. He was one of the few Nazi leaders who did not take offence at hearing jokes about himself, "no matter how rude", taking them as a sign of his popularity amongst the masses. One such German joke poked fun at Göring in stating that he would wear an admiral's uniform with rubber medals to take a bath, and his obesity, joking that "he sits down on his stomach".[184][185] Another joke claimed that he had sent a wire to Hitler after his visit to the Vatican: "Mission accomplished. Pope unfrocked. Tiara and pontifical vestments are a perfect fit."[186]
Role in the Holocaust
Joseph Goebbels and Himmler were far more antisemitic than Göring, who mainly adopted that attitude because party politics required him to do so.[187] His deputy, Erhard Milch, had a Jewish parent. However, Göring supported the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and later initiated economic measures unfavourable to Jews.[187] He required the registration of all Jewish property as part of the Four-Year Plan, and at a meeting held after Kristallnacht was livid that the financial burden for the Jewish losses would have to be made good by German-owned insurance companies. He proposed that the Jews be fined one billion marks.[188]
At the same meeting, options for the disposition of the Jews and their property were discussed. Jews would be segregated into ghettos or encouraged to emigrate, and their property would be seized in a programme of
On 24 January 1939, Göring established in Berlin the head office of the Central Office for Jewish Emigration,[189] modelled on the similar organization established in Vienna in August 1938.[190] Under the direction of Heydrich, it was tasked with using any means necessary to prompt Jews to leave the Reich, and creating a Jewish organization that would co-ordinate emigration from the Jewish side.[191]
In July 1941, Göring issued a memo to Heydrich ordering him to organise the practical details of the Final Solution to the "Jewish Question". By the time that this letter was written, many Jews and others had already been killed in Poland, Russia, and elsewhere. At the Wannsee Conference, held six months later, Heydrich formally announced that genocide of the Jews was now official Reich policy. Göring did not attend the conference, but he was present at other meetings where the number of people killed was discussed.[192][193]
Göring directed
At the Nuremberg trial Göring told first lieutenant and U.S. Army psychologist Gustave Gilbert that he would never have supported the anti-Jewish measures if he had known what was going to happen. "I only thought we would eliminate Jews from positions in big business and government", he claimed.[195][196]
Decorations and awards
German
- Iron Cross
- Pour le Mérite (2 June 1918)[197]
- Blood Order (Commemorative Medal of 9 November 1923)[197]
- Clasp to the Iron Cross
- Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939[197]
- Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for "the victories of the Luftwaffe in 1940 during the French campaign" (the only award of this decoration during World War II – 19 August 1940)[198]
- Order from the Grand Duke of Baden Orden vom Zähringer Löwen (de) Knights Cross 2nd Class with Swords[198]
- Golden Party Badge[197]
- Knights Cross with Swords of the House Order of Hohenzollern[198]
- Knights Cross of the Military Karl-Friedrich Merit Order[198]
- Danzig Cross, 1st and 2nd class[197]
Foreign
- Knight of the Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius (Kingdom of Bulgaria)[199]
- Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog, with Breast Star in Diamonds (Kingdom of Denmark) (25 July 1938)[200][201]
- Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (6 March 1935)[202]
- Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (21 April 1941)[203]
- Grand Cross with Swords of the Order of the Cross of Liberty (Finland) (25 March 1942)[204]
- Grand Cross of the Order of St Stephen (Kingdom of Hungary)[205]
- Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation (Kingdom of Italy) (12 January 1940)[206]
- Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword, with Collar (Kingdom of Sweden) (1939)[207]
- Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun, with Paulownia Flowers (Empire of Japan) (4 October 1943)[208]
See also
- Aerial victory standards of World War I
- Air warfare of World War II
- Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring
- Glossary of Nazi Germany
- Glossary of German military terms
- Göring's Green Folder
- List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
Notes
- oe⟩ the alternative German spelling for umlautsin general.
- ^ The swastika was a badge which the count and some friends had adopted at school, and he adopted it as a family emblem. See Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 403–404.
- ^ By 1930, the Nazi party claimed upwards of 293,000 members.[48]
- ^ Confident that the Luftwaffe was without peer and practically invincible in the wake of these victories, Göring commented to the German press that should the enemy ever penetrate German airspace, they could call him "Meyer".[94][95]
- ^ Upon being captured by American soldiers, Göring immediately asked to be taken before Eisenhower. He hoped to be treated as a "spokesman for Germany".[143]
Citations
- ^ a b Kershaw 2008, p. 284.
- ^ Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression 1946, pp. 100–101.
- ^ Evans 2005, p. 358.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 21.
- ^ Block & Trow 1971, pp. 327–330.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Freitag 2015, pp. 25–45.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 22–24.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 24–25.
- ^ a b Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 24–28.
- ^ Overy 2012, p. 5.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Franks 1993, pp. 95, 117, 156.
- ^ Franks 1993, p. 117.
- ^ Kilduff 2013, pp. 165–166.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 31–33.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 403.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 34–36.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 39.
- ^ Overy 2012, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 39–41.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 43.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 41, 43.
- ^ a b Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 45, 47.
- ^ Miller 2006, p. 426.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 112.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 47.
- ^ Hitler 1988, p. 168.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 49–51.
- ^ Holland 2011, p. 54.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 131.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Speer 1971, p. 644.
- ^ Overy 2012, p. 7.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 59–60.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 160.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 61.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 404.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 62, 64.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 146.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 118–121.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 66.
- ^ Overy 2012, p. 8.
- ^ Reichstag databank.
- ^ Overy 2012, p. 9.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 136, 138.
- ^ Childers 2017, p. 131.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 74.
- ^ Evans 2003, p. 297.
- ^ Evans 2003, pp. 329–330.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 194.
- ^ Evans 2003, p. 331.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 192.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 262.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 193.
- ^ Nuremberg Trial Proceedings, 18 March 1946.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 111.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Gunther 1940, p. 63.
- ^ a b Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 187.
- ^ Miller & Schulz 2015, p. 47.
- ^ Miller & Schulz 2015, pp. 50–51.
- ^ New York Times, 19 May 1933.
- ^ Lilla 2005, pp. 292–295.
- ^ Frank 1933–1934, p. 253.
- ^ Miller & Schulz 2015, p. 58.
- ^ Evans 2005, p. 54.
- ^ Goldhagen 1996, p. 95.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 306.
- ^ Evans 2005, pp. 31–35, 39.
- ^ Evans 2005, pp. 38.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 116–117.
- ^ Evans 2005, p. 364.
- ^ Evans 2005, pp. 357–360.
- ^ Miller & Schulz 2015, p. 60.
- ^ Evans 2005, p. 361.
- ^ Overy 2002, p. 145.
- ^ Gerwarth 2011, p. 116.
- ^ Gerwarth 2011, pp. 116, 117.
- ^ Evans 2005, pp. 642–644.
- ^ Evans 2005, pp. 646–652.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 194–197.
- ^ Evans 2005, p. 674.
- ^ Noakes & Pridham 2001, p. 119.
- ^ a b Gunther 1940, p. 19.
- ^ a b Overy 2002, p. 73.
- ^ a b Overy 2002, p. 236.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 197, 211.
- ^ Broszat 1981, pp. 308–309.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 597.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 599.
- ^ Hooton 1999, pp. 177–189.
- ^ Moorhouse 2012, p. 350.
- ^ Perry 2013, p. 45fn.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 721, 723, 725.
- ^ a b Fellgiebel 2000, p. 198.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 615.
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- ^ Oestermann 2001, p. 157.
- ^ Selwood 2015.
- ^ Raeder 2001, pp. 324–325.
- ^ Bungay 2000, p. 337.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 144.
- ^ Taylor 1965, p. 500.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 145.
- ^ Evans 2008, pp. 178–179.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 187.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 201.
- ^ a b Stolfi 1982.
- ^ Evans 2008, pp. 207–213.
- ^ Keller 2021, p. 204.
- ^ Gerlach 2016, p. 228.
- ^ Pohl 2012, p. 214.
- ^ a b Pohl 2012, p. 215.
- ^ Fleming 1987.
- ^ Evans 2008, pp. 404–405.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 421.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 409.
- ^ Evans 2008, pp. 412–413.
- ^ Speer 1971, p. 329.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 932.
- ^ Evans 2008, pp. 438, 441.
- ^ Speer 1971, p. 378.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 461.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 447.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 296, 297, 299.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 510.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 295, 302.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 725.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 310.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 722.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 723.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, pp. 1115–1116.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 1116.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 315.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 1118.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 608–609.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 724.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 318.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 1126.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 320–325.
- ^ Overy 2012, p. 228.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 1128.
- ^ USAF 1945.
- ^ Gilbert 1995, p. 31.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 329–331.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 336–337.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 337.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 339.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 341–342.
- ^ a b Goldensohn 2004.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 343–347.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 359–367.
- ^ a b Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 369.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 371.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 374–375.
- ^ International Military Tribunal 1946.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 392–393.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 964.
- ^ Taylor 1992, p. 623.
- ^ Botting 2006, p. 280.
- ^ BBC News 2005.
- ^ Darnstädt 2005.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 393.
- ^ Overy 2001, p. 205.
- ^ OSS Reports.
- ^ NARA Records.
- ^ Beevor 2006, pp. 366–368, 538.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 120–123.
- ^ Kellerhoff 2018.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 244–245.
- ^ Rothfeld 2002.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 283–285.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 283–285, 291.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 281.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 115–116.
- ^ Fussell 2002, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 122.
- ^ Speer 1971, p. 417.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 416–417.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 417–418.
- ^ Mosley 1974, p. 280.
- ^ Block & Trow 1971, p. 330.
- ^ Gunther 1940, p. 65.
- ^ Evans 2005, p. 409.
- ^ a b Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 136–137.
- ^ a b Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 189–191.
- ^ Hilberg 1985, p. 160.
- ^ Cesarani 2005, p. 62.
- ^ Cesarani 2005, p. 77.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, pp. 259–260.
- ^ Blood 2001, p. 75.
- ^ Blood 2010, pp. 261–262, 266.
- ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 378.
- ^ Gilbert 1995, p. 208.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Miller 2006, p. 442.
- ^ a b c d Miller & Schulz 2015, p. 89.
- ^ Petrov 2005, p. 56.
- ^ Gade 2011.
- ^ Bille-Hansen & Holck 1943, p. 20.
- ^ Matikkala 2017, p. 36.
- ^ Matikkala 2017, p. 515.
- ^ Matikkala 2017, p. 511.
- ^ Lajos 2011, p. 41.
- ^ Overy 2012, p. 233.
- ^ Statskalender 1940, p. 10.
- ^ Gazeta Lwowska 1943, p. 1.
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Further reading
- Brandenburg, Erich (1995). Die Nachkommen Karls Des Grossen. Neustadt/Aisch: Degener. ISBN 3-7686-5102-9.
- Burke, William Hastings (2009). Thirty Four. London: Wolfgeist. ISBN 978-0-9563712-0-1.
- Butler, Ewan (1951). Marshal Without Glory. London: Hodder & Stoughton. OCLC 1246848.
- ISBN 0-374-13577-0.
- Frischauer, Willi (2013) [1950]. Goering. Unmaterial Books. ISBN 978-1-78301-221-3.
- Göring, Hermann (1934). Germany Reborn. London: E. Mathews & Marrot. OCLC 570220. Archived from the originalon 3 August 2004.
- Leffland, Ella (1990). The Knight, Death and the Devil. New York: Morrow. ISBN 0-688-05836-1.
- Maser, Werner (2000). Hitlers janusköpfiger Paladin: die politische Biographie (in German). Soesterberg: Aspekt. ISBN 3-86124-509-4.
- Maser, Werner (2004). Fälschung, Dichtung und Wahrheit über Hitler und Stalin (in German). Munich: Olzog. ISBN 3-7892-8134-4.
- Paul, Wolfgang (1983). Wer War Hermann Göring: Biographie (in German). Esslingen: Bechtle. ISBN 3-7628-0427-3.
External links
- Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 9 Transcript of Goering's testimony at the trial
- "Lost Prison Interview with Hermann Goring: The Reichsmarschall's Revelations" published by World War II Magazine
- Göring at Långbro asylum
- The Goering Collection: online database (in German as Die Kunstsammlung Hermann Göring) of 4263 artworks in Hermann Göring's collection
- Newspaper clippings about Hermann Göring in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW