Hermit crab

Most

Hermit crab species range in size and shape, from species with a

The young develop in stages, with the first two (the nauplius and protozoea) occurring inside the egg. Most hermit crab larvae hatch at the third stage, the zoea. In this larval stage, the crab has several long spines, a long, narrow abdomen, and large fringed antennae. Several zoeal moults are followed by the final larval stage, the megalopa.^[20]

The sexual behavior inhibited by hermit crabs varies from species to species, but a general description is as follows. If the female possesses any larvae from a previous mating, she moults and lets them go. Female hermit crabs are ready to mate shortly before moulting, and she may come in contact with a male. In certain species the male grabs the pre-moult female for sometimes hours. Prior to the female moulting, and usually continuing after she has moulted, the male performs precopulatory behaviors. These vary widely but the most common are rotating/shaking the female, and jerking the female towards the male.^[21]

After some time, the female moves the chelipeds in her mouth region, signaling the male. Then they both move their bodies mostly out of their shells, and mate. Both crabs then go back inside their shells, and they may mate again. In some species the male performs post-copulatory behavior until the female has the eggs on her pleopods.^[21]

Shells and shell remodeling

As hermit crabs grow, they require larger shells. Since suitable intact gastropod shells are sometimes a limited resource, competition often occurs between hermit crabs for shells. The availability of empty shells at any given place depends on the relative abundance of gastropods and hermit crabs, matched for size. An equally important issue is the population of organisms that prey upon gastropods and leave the shells intact.^[22] Hermit crabs kept together may fight or kill a competitor to gain access to the shell they favour. However, if the crabs vary significantly in size, fights over empty shells are rare.^[23] Hermit crabs with undersized shells cannot grow as fast as those with well-fitting shells, and are more likely to be eaten if they cannot retract completely into the shell.^[24]

Shells used by hermit crabs have usually been remodeled by previous hermit crab owners. This involves a hermit crab hollowing out the shell, making it lighter. Only small hermit crabs are able to live without remodelled shells. Most big hermit crabs that have been transferred to a normal shell die. Even if they were able to survive, hollowing out a shell takes precious energy, making it undesirable to any hermit crab.^[25] They achieve this remodeling by both chemically and physically carving out the interiors of their shell. These shells can last for generations, explaining why some hermit crabs are able to live in areas where snails have become locally extinct.^[26]

There are cases when seashells are not available and hermit crabs will use alternatives such as tin cans, custom-made shells, or any other types of debris, which often proves fatal to the hermit crabs (as they can climb into, but not out of, slippery plastic debris).^[27] This can even create a chain reaction of fatality, because a dead hermit crab will release a signal to tell others that a shell is available, luring more hermit crabs to their deaths. More specifically, they are attracted to the scent of dead hermit crab flesh.^[28]

For some larger marine species, supporting one or more

In February 2024, Polish researchers reported that 10 of 16 terrestrial hermit crab species were observed using artificial shells, including discarded plastic waste, broken glass bottles and light bulbs, in lieu of natural shells.[30]

Shell fighting

Shell fighting is a behavior observed in all hermit crabs. It is a process in which the attacker hermit crab attempts to steal the shell of the victim, using a fairly intricate process. It usually only occurs if there is no empty shell suitable for the growing hermit crab. These fights are usually between the same species, though they can also occur between two separate species.^[21][31]

If the defending crab does not retreat to the inside of its shell, an aggressive interaction will usually take place, until the defending crab retreats, or the attacker flees. After the defender has retreated, the attacker will usually turn the shell over multiple times, holding it with its legs. It then places its chelipeds into the shell's opening.^[32][31]

Then the crabs start the "positioning" behavior, this consists of the attacker moving side to side, over the opening of the defender's shell. This movement usually forms a figure 8. The attacker then goes into the aptly named "rapping" behavior. The attacker holds its legs and chepelothorax stationary, while it moves its shell down on the defender's shell. It is done quite rapidly, and is usually enough to produce an audible sound. It seems like little to no contact happens directly between the two crabs.^[32]

After a number of "raps", the defender may come out of its shell completely, usually positioning itself of one of the shells. The attacker then checks the now free shell, and then changes shell rapidly. As the crab tries its new shell, it usually holds its old shell, as it may decide to come back to the old one. The defeated crab then runs to the empty shell. If the defeated crab does not stay close to the shells, it is usually eaten.^[32]

Several hermit crab species, both

Aggressive behaviors for hermit crabs are quite similar to one another, with some variations present between species. It usually consists of moving or positioning the legs and the chelipeds, also known as the claw or pincer. Usually these displays are enough to avoid confrontation. Sometimes two opposing crabs will do multiple actions, with no apparent pattern.^[31] These confrontations usually last a few seconds, though some may last a few minutes, for those especially stubborn crabs.^[21]

They can also raise a leg which is sometimes referred to as an "ambulatory raise". This can happen with multiple legs such as with the first two walking legs, or both the first and second pair. This is referred to as "double ambulatory raise", and "quadruple ambulatory raise", respectively. The exact form of this movement is variable between species. In some other species there is another distinct movement, where they move their leg away and upwards from the body, while it moves forwards, this same movement continues as the limb is brought down. This movement is sometimes called an "ambulatory poke".^[21][31]

They also use their chelipeds as a warning display, usually used in two distinct variations. The first one consists of the crab lifting its whole body (shell included), and spreading its legs, then moving its cheliped forward until the dactylus (top part of the claw) is perpendicular with the ground. This movement is usually called an "cheliped presentation" This position may be more distinct in some species, such as those in the genus Pagurus. The second variation called the "cheliped extension", is usually a purely visual movement, though it may sometimes be used to strike a crab. The chelipeds move forward and upwards, until the limb is parallel with the ground, usually used to push another crab out of the way. If a larger crab pushes a smaller one, the smaller one may be moved multiple centimeters.^[21][31]

The crabs of the family Paguridae, have another distinct type of movement. Individuals may crawl upon another's crab shell. If the size is just right the crab climbed upon may move rapidly up and down or sideways, usually causing the other crab to fall off.^[21]

Grouping behavior

Some species such as Clibanarius tricolor, Calcinus tibicen and Pagurus miamensis are semi gregarious, showing unique behaviors in groups. While these three species all show gregarious behavior, C. tricolor, forms the densest and bigger groups. The crabs of Clibanarius tricolor congregate during the day, and usually stay with their same respective group, day after day. At 4:00 p.m. the crabs would start moving in their groups, and by 5:00 p.m. they had left their congregation. The congregations usually move in one general direction, and may be close to other crabs. This behavior seems to be lost under controlled conditions, however.^[21]

Associations with other animals

The shells of hermit crabs have multiple "associates" whose exact roles have not been well described. These associates are usually categorized into two groups, those who live in the interior of the shell and those who live on the exterior. Some of the interior associates include nereid worms which have a commensal relation, the worms help the hermit crabs keep their shell clean along with the crabs of the family Porcellanidae. It is not rare to see both the worms and crabs in the same shell.^[35][36]

There are also associations with Amphipods, such as the relationship between the hermit crab species Pagurus hemphilli and the amphipod genus Liljeborgia. The coloration of this amphipod matches the coloration of the hermit crab and the Crustose rhodophycean algae which commonly grows in their shells. Specimens of P. hemphilli tolerated the presence of their guest, while other hermit crab species attempted eating them.^[36][37]

Some of the exterior associates are the

Of the approximately 15 terrestrial species of genus Coenobita in the world, the following are commonly kept as pets: Caribbean hermit crab (Coenobita clypeatus), Australian land hermit crab (Coenobita variabilis), and the Ecuadorian hermit crab (Coenobita compressus). Other species, such as Coenobita brevimanus, Coenobita rugosus, Coenobita perlatus or Coenobita cavipes, are less common but growing in availability and popularity as pets.

Hermit crabs are often considered to be 'throwaway pets' that only live for a few months, but species such as