Himalayas
The Himalayas | |
---|---|
Brahmaputra; and the two anchors of the range (in yellow) | |
Highest point | |
Peak | Mount Everest, Nepal China |
Elevation | 8,848.86 m (29,031.7 ft) |
Coordinates | 27°59′N 86°55′E / 27.983°N 86.917°E |
Dimensions | |
Length | 2,400 km (1,500 mi) |
Geography | |
Mount Everest and surrounding peaks as seen from the north-northwest over the Tibetan Plateau. Four eight-thousanders can be seen, Makalu (8,462 m), Everest (8,848 m), Cho Oyu (8,201 m), and Lhotse (8,516 m). | |
Countries | [a] |
Continent | Asia |
Geology | |
Orogeny | Alpine orogeny |
Age of rock | Cretaceous-to-Cenozoic |
Type of rock |
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə, hɪˈmɑːləjə/ HIM-ə-LAY-ə, hih-MAH-lə-yə) [b] is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest; more than 100 peaks exceeding elevations of 7,200 m (23,600 ft) above sea level lie in the Himalayas.
The Himalayas abut or cross
Name
The name of the range hails from the Sanskrit Himālaya (हिमालय 'abode of snow'[8]), from hima (हिम 'frost/cold'[9]) and ālaya (आलय 'dwelling/house'[10]).[11][12] They are now known as "the Himalaya Mountains", usually shortened to "the Himalayas".
The mountains are known as the Himālaya in
The name of the range is sometimes also given as Himavan in older writings, including the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata.[13] Himavat (Sanskrit: हिमवत्) or Himavan Himavān (Sanskrit: हिमवान्) is a Hindu deity who is the personification of the Himalayan Mountain Range. Other epithets include Himaraja (Sanskrit: हिमराज, lit. 'king of snow') or Parvateshwara (Sanskrit: पर्वतेश्वर, lit. 'lord of mountains').
In western literature, some writers refer to it as the Himalaya. This was also previously transcribed as Himmaleh, as in Emily Dickinson's poetry[14] and Henry David Thoreau's essays.[15]
Geography and key features
The Himalayas consists of four parallel
are generally considered separate from the Himalayas.In the middle of the great curve of the Himalayan mountains lie the 8,000 m (26,000 ft) peaks of
In the far east of Nepal, the Himalayas rise to the
Going west from Dhaulagiri, Western Nepal is somewhat remote and lacks major high mountains, but is home to
The next Himalayan Indian state,
Geology
The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted
During the
Today, the Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards.
During the last ice age, there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west.[24][25] In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram, and in the north, they joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft).[24][26] While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20 to 32 km (12 to 20 mi) in length, several of the main valley glaciers were 60 to 112 km (37 to 70 mi) long during the ice age.[24] The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 m (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least 7.0 to 8.3 °C (12.6 to 14.9 °F) colder than it is today.[27]
Hydrology
Despite their scale, the Himalayas do not form a major continental divide, and a number of rivers cut through the range, particularly in the eastern part of the range. As a result, the main ridge of the Himalayas is not clearly defined, and mountain passes are not as significant for traversing the range as with other mountain ranges. Himalayas' rivers drain into two large systems:[28]
- The western rivers combine into the Indus Basin. The Indus itself forms the northern and western boundaries of the Himalayas. It begins in Tibet, at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers, and flows north-west through India into Pakistan before turning south-west to the Arabian Sea. It is fed by several major tributaries draining the southern slopes of the Himalayas, including the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, the five rivers of the Punjab.
- The other Himalayan rivers drain the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin. Its main rivers are the Sunderbans.[29]
The northern slopes of
Glaciers
The great ranges of central Asia, including the Himalayas, contain the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after
Owing to the mountains' latitude near the
In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of climate change.[36][37] For example, glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Studies have measured an approximately 13% overall decrease in glacial coverage in the Himalayas over the last 40–50 years.[32] Local conditions play a large role in glacial retreat, however, and glacial loss can vary locally from a few m/yr to 61 m/yr.[32] A marked acceleration in glacial mass loss has also been observed since 1975, from about 5–13 Gt/yr to 16–24 Gt/yr.[32] Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers during the dry seasons.[32][38][39][40] The global climate change will affect the water resources and livelihoods of the Greater Himalayan region.[41]
Lakes
The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes.[42] Pangong Tso, which is spread across the border between India and China, at the far western end of Tibet, is among the largest with a surface area of 700 km2 (270 sq mi).
South of the main range, the lakes are smaller.
Some of the lakes present the danger of a glacial lake outburst flood. The Tsho Rolpa glacier lake in the Rowaling Valley, in the Dolakha District of Nepal, is rated as the most dangerous. The lake, which is located at an altitude of 4,580 m (15,030 ft), has grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting.[43][44] The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 m (18,000 ft).[45]
Temperate Himalayan wetlands provide important habitat and layover sites for migratory birds. Many mid and low altitude lakes remain poorly studied in terms of their hydrology and biodiversity, like Khecheopalri in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas.[46]
Climate
Temperature
The physical factors determining the climate in any location in the Himalayas include latitude, altitude, and the relative motion of the
As the physical features of mountains are irregular, with broken jagged contours, there can be wide variations in temperature over short distances.
The immense scale of the Himalayas means that many summits can create their own weather, the temperature fluctuating from one summit to another, from one face to another, and all may be quite different from the weather in nearby plateaus or valleys.[48]
Precipitation
A critical influence on the Himalayan climate is the
Winds
The vast size, huge altitude range, and complex topography of the Himalayas mean they experience a wide range of climates, from humid subtropical in the foothills, to cold and dry desert conditions on the Tibetan side of the range. For much of the Himalayas—in the areas to the south of the high mountains, the monsoon is the most characteristic feature of the climate and causes most of the precipitation, while the western disturbance brings winter precipitation, especially in the west. Heavy rain arrives on the southwest monsoon in June and persists until September. The monsoon can seriously impact transport and cause major landslides. It restricts tourism – the trekking and mountaineering season is limited to either before the monsoon in April/May or after the monsoon in October/November (autumn). In Nepal and Sikkim, there are often considered to be five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, (or post-monsoon), winter, and spring.[49]
Using the Köppen climate classification, the lower elevations of the Himalayas, reaching in mid-elevations in central Nepal (including the Kathmandu valley), are classified as Cwa, Humid subtropical climate with dry winters. Higher up, most of the Himalayas have a subtropical highland climate (Cwb).[citation needed]
The intensity of the southwest monsoon diminishes as it moves westward along the range, with as much as 2,030 mm (80 in) of rainfall in the monsoon season in Darjeeling in the east, compared to only 975 mm (38.4 in) during the same period in Shimla in the west.[50][51]
The northern side of the Himalayas, also known as the Tibetan Himalaya, is dry, cold, and generally windswept, particularly in the west where it has a cold desert climate. The vegetation is sparse and stunted and the winters are severely cold. Most of the precipitation in the region is in the form of snow during the late winter and spring months.
Local impacts on climate are significant throughout the Himalayas. Temperatures fall by 0.2 to 1.2 °C for every 100 m (330 ft) rise in altitude.[52] This gives rise to a variety of climates, from a nearly tropical climate in the foothills, to tundra and permanent snow and ice at higher elevations. Local climate is also affected by the topography: The leeward side of the mountains receive less rain while the well-exposed slopes get heavy rainfall and the rain shadow of large mountains can be significant, for example, leading to near desert conditions in the Upper Mustang, which is sheltered from the monsoon rains by the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri massifs and has annual precipitation of around 300 mm (12 in), while Pokhara on the southern side of the massifs has substantial rainfall (3,900 mm or 150 in a year). Thus, although annual precipitation is generally higher in the east than in the west, local variations are often more important.[citation needed]
The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the
Climate change
The 2019 Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment[54] concluded that between 1901 and 2014, the Hindu Kush Himalaya (or HKH) region had already experienced warming of 0.1 °C per decade, with the warming rate accelerating to 0.2 °C per decade over the past 50 years. Over the past 50 years, the frequency of warm days and nights had also increased by 1.2 days and 1.7 nights per decade, while the frequency of extreme warm days and nights had increased by 1.26 days and 2.54 nights per decade. There was also a corresponding decline of 0.5 cold days, 0.85 extreme cold days, 1 cold night, and 2.4 extreme cold nights per decade. The length of the growing season has increased by 4.25 days per decade.
There is less conclusive evidence of light
In the future, if the Paris Agreement goal of 1.5 °C of global warming is not exceeded, warming in the HKH will be at least 0.3 °C higher, and at least 0.7 °C higher in the hotspots of northwest Himalaya and Karakoram. If the Paris Agreement goals are broken, then the region is expected to warm by 1.7–2.4 °C in the near future (2036–2065) and by 2.2–3.3 °C (2066–2095) near the end of the century under the "intermediate" Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 (RCP4.5).
Under the high-warming RCP8.5 scenario where the annual emissions continue to increase for the rest of the century, the expected regional warming is 2.3–3.2 °C and 4.2–6.5 °C, respectively. Under all scenarios, winters will warm more than the summers, and the Tibetan Plateau, the central Himalayan Range, and the Karakoram will continue to warm more than the rest of the region. Climate change will also lead to the degradation of up to 81% of the region's permafrost by the end of the century.[55]
Future precipitation is projected to increase as well, but
Ecology
The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall, and soil conditions, combined with the very high snow line, supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities.[42] The extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure), combined with extreme cold, favor extremophile organisms.[59][46]
At high altitudes, the elusive and previously endangered
The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to climate change. Hydrangea hirta is an example of floral species that can be found in this area. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, especially rhododendron, apple, and box myrtle. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is Juniperus tibetica, located at 4,900 m (16,080 ft) in Southeastern Tibet.[60]
Climate justice
Similar to the mountains, the communities living near the Himalayas are experiencing climate change and its negative impacts significantly more than other parts of the world.[62] Some of the impacts that the communities are facing include erratic rainfall, flooding, rising temperatures, and landslides.[62] These impacts can have extreme negative effects on the villages living in the area especially as the temperatures rise at higher rates than many other places in the world (Alexander et al., 2014). There are more than 1.9 million people who are highly vulnerable due to climate change with an additional 10 million people at risk in Nepal.[62] Nepal is among the top ten most vulnerable Global South countries due to climate change in the world, standing at number 4 as of 2010 according to the climate change risk atlas.[63][64] According to NAPA (National Adaptation Program of Action) of Nepal, many threats including floods, droughts, and landslides are an imminent threat to the glacial lake area.[65] With this in consideration, climate change policy and framework for LAPA (Local Adaptation Plans of Action) were prepared in 2011 primarily focusing on addressing climatic hazards.[66]
Health impacts
Local communities are suffering from food scarcity and malnutrition as well as an increasing risk to diseases such as malaria and dengue fever as temperatures rise and allow these diseases to migrate further north.[67] There is also an increasing risk of water borne illnesses accompanied by an increasing lack of safe drinking water.[67] Illness is not the only danger to the communities as temperatures sky rocket. With the climate changing weather patterns are also changing and more extreme weather events are occurring putting local communities more at risk to physical harm and death during erratic weather events.[68] Marginalized groups including children and women are experiencing more severe impacts from climate change and are often more exposed to disease and injury.[67] Over the last couple years these health impacts have gotten increasingly worse and more common. Recent studies have shown that dengue fever has had a consistent pattern of epidemic in Nepal in the years 2010, 2013, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2022 with the largest in terms of severity occurring in 2022.[69] 54,784 reported cases were recorded from all 77 districts in seven provinces.[69] These diseases are simply in addition to other diseases that can be seen with the rise of global temperatures and air pollution. Many vulnerable groups are experiencing an increase in respiratory illness, cardiac illnesses, and asthma.[70] The heat can lead to issues such as a strain on respiratory illnesses, heat stroke, and fever.[70] There is also the increased risk of cancer.[70] Many lower income communities such as the himalayan villages suffer from exposure to more pollution or in some cases exposure to toxic chemicals which has led to an increased rate of cancer in these communities as well as an increased risk of death.[70]
Agricultural impacts
The increasing temperatures are also leading to a decrease in territory for local wildlife. This has led to a decrease in prey for at risk predators such as snow leopards. This has led to a negative relationship between local farmers and the wildlife as snow leopards and other predators attack the farmers’ livestock. This livestock consists of yaks, oxen, horses, and goats.[71] Snow leopards have killed about 2.6% of the local livestock per year in response to their decreasing habitat.[71] This has had a major impact on the local economy leading to the loss of about a quarter of the average annual income of the local farmers.[71] This has led to farmers then killing the snow leopards in retaliation in order to protect their livestock and their livelihoods.[71]
Policy changes
Nepal is a part of the Paris agreement and thus is required to have a climate action plan and is being tracked by the Climate Action Tracker.[72] According to the Climate Action Tracker, Nepal is "almost sufficient" on its track to reach the goals set by the Paris Agreement.[72] There are two factors that hold Nepal back from reaching sufficient status and thus stand out.[72] There is no Climate Finance Plan and emissions and temperature rising rate ranking at critically insufficient.[72] Nepal has many goals, however, that are on track with the Paris Agreement.[72] The first of note being a goal of net-zero emissions by 2045.[72] To reach this goal Nepal submitted two separate plans to account for whatever future they experience the first being WAM (with additional measures) and the second being WEM (with existing measures).[72] WEM is based primarily on already existing policies and highlights the energy sector as the main target for CO2 reduction.[72] The WAM scenario introduces a far more ambitious strategy for reducing emissions.[72] In this scenario the focus is primarily on an intervention method and disruption of the energy sector reducing the use of fossil fuels and the incorporation of renewable energy sources. This pathway heavily relies on reducing emissions from energy sources while preserving the carbon-absorbing capacity of the LULUCF (Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry) sector.[72] Under this scenario, it is anticipated that net CO2 emissions will remain negative from 2020 to 2030, approach 'zero' between 2035 and 2045, and then revert to negative values by 2050.[72] The goal of this scenario is to accelerate the journey toward achieving carbon neutrality before 2045.[72] These policies along with many more have Nepal on track to stay beneath the 1.5 threshold set by the Paris Agreement.[72]
Local adaptation
In recent years many citizens of these Himalayan communities have started to notice the extreme effects of climate change by experiencing nature itself.[73] They have noticed a decrease in precipitation especially in lowland districts, fluctuating temperatures during months of the year that are typically cooler, and changes in weather patterns even compared to early 2000s weather.[73] Many local villagers have identified climate change simply through the availability of certain native plants decreasing or shifting seasons.[73] The concept of climate change has now been aligned with the risk of natural disasters and has increased awareness in the local communities.[73] These impacts of climate change have greatly affected agriculture in the area and has forced farmers to change crops and when they plant them.[73] In response to this rather than push for policy change, citizens have begun to adapt to climate change.[74] According to Dhungana, 91.94% of the respondents experienced drought as major climatic hazards then floods at 83.87%, landslides at 70.97%, and forest fires at 67.74%.[74] In response to this citizens have begun adapting and adopting new practices.[74] As a response to drought at the high altitudes, plantations are planting more protective trees, drought resistant plants, and have begun adopting irrigation practices drawing from nearby streams.[74] In response to flooding, farmers have created more basins, dam construction, and small drainage canals.[74]
The response to landslides includes plantation grasses in previously barren areas, Gabion wall construction, avoiding livestock grazing in landslide-prone areas, and a prohibition on tillage in areas at risk of landslides.[74] To fight the increased rate of forest fires, citizens have begun beating the fires with green branches and mud, construction of fire lines, and are raising awareness about the wildfires.[74] Fire lines are lines of varying width built through the leaf litter of a forest floor down to the soil and minerals to prevent a spread of fire past the line.[75] The main reason for these adaptations is to decrease the risk that climate change poses over these marginalized communities while taking advantage of the moment and allowing for a positive change towards a more sustainable or adaptable future.[74] Major barriers to these adaptations include a lack of funds, a lack of knowledge, a lack of technology, a lack of time, and lack of mandatory policy.[74]
Religions
There are many cultural and mythological aspects associated with the Himalayas. In
The
A number of
Resources
The Himalayas are home to a diversity of medicinal resources. Plants from the forests have been used for millennia to treat conditions ranging from simple coughs to snake bites.[80] Different parts of the plants – root, flower, stem, leaves, and bark – are used as remedies for different ailments. For example, a bark extract from an Abies pindrow tree is used to treat coughs and bronchitis. Leaf and stem paste from an Andrachne cordifolia is used for wounds and as an antidote for snake bites. The bark of a Callicarpa arborea is used for skin ailments.[80] Nearly a fifth of the gymnosperms, angiosperms, and pteridophytes in the Himalayas are found to have medicinal properties, and more are likely to be discovered.[80]
Most of the population in some Asian and African countries depends on medicinal plants rather than prescriptions and such.[78] Since so many people use medicinal plants as their only source of healing in the Himalayas, the plants are an important source of income. This contributes to economic and modern industrial development both inside and outside the region.[78] The only problem is that locals are rapidly clearing the forests on the Himalayas for wood, often illegally.[86]
See also
- Western Himalaya
- Indian Himalayan Region
- List of Himalayan peaks and passes
- List of Himalayan topics
- List of mountains in India, Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal and China
- List of Ultras of the Himalayas
- Trekking peak
Notes
References
- ^ Himalayas (mountains, Asia). Encyclopaedia Britannica. 14 August 2023.
Though India, Nepal, and Bhutan have sovereignty over most of the Himalayas, Pakistan and China also occupy parts of them. In the Kashmir region, Pakistan has administrative control of some 32,400 square miles (83,900 square km) of the range lying north and west of the "line of control" established between India and Pakistan in 1972. China administers some 14,000 square miles (36,000 square km) in the Ladakh region and has claimed territory at the eastern end of the Himalayas within the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. Those disputes accentuate the boundary problems faced by India and its neighbours in the Himalayan region.
- ISBN 9780813173849
- ^ "Himalayan". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
Etymology: < Himālaya (Sanskrit < hima snow + ālaya dwelling, abode) + -an suffix)
(Subscription or participating institution membership required.) - ^ Bishop, Barry. "Himalayas (mountains, Asia)". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 July 2016.
- ISBN 978-3-030-29684-1.
- ^ Wadia, D. N. (1931). "The syntaxis of the northwest Himalaya: its rocks, tectonics and orogeny". Record Geol. Survey of India. 65 (2): 189–220.
- ^ Apollo, M. (2017). "Chapter 9: The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future". In Efe, R.; Öztürk, M. (eds.). Contemporary Studies in Environment and Tourism. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 143–159.
- ^ "MW Cologne Scan". www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ^ "MW Cologne Scan". www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ^ "WIL Cologne Scan". www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ^ "BEN Cologne Scan". www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ^ "WIL Cologne Scan". www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ISBN 9788184752779. Entry: "Himavan"
- ^ Dickinson, Emily, The Himmaleh was known to stoop.
- ^ Thoreau, Henry David (1849), A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers.
- ^ Bishop, Barry C.; Chatterjee, Shiba P. (14 August 2023). Himalayas. Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ Pletcher, Kenneth (13 March 2009). "Kumaun Himalayas". Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ a b "The Himalayas: Two continents collide". USGS. 5 May 1999. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
- ISSN 0012-8252.
- ^ "Geologists Find: An Earth Plate Is Breaking in Two". Columbia University. 7 July 1995.
- S2CID 140603614. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
- ^ "Plate Tectonics -The Himalayas". The Geological Society. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
- ^ "Devastating earthquakes are priming the Himalaya for a mega-disaster". Science. 17 January 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ a b c Kuhle, M. (2011). "The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates". In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.; Hughes, P.D. (eds.). Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look. Amsterdam: Elsevier BV. pp. 943–965.
- ^ glacier maps downloadable
- S2CID 129366521.
- .
- ^ "Himalayas - Rivers, Glaciers, Peaks | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ "Sunderbans the world's largest delta". gits4u.com. Archived from the original on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
- Bibcode:2003EAEJA....13617G. Abstract 13617. Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ "The Himalayas – Himalayas Facts". Nature on PBS. 11 February 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
- ^ JSTOR 24099804– via JSTOR.
- ^ "the Himalayan Glaciers". Fourth assessment report on climate change. IPPC. 2007. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
- ^ Shi, Yafeng; Xie, Zizhu; Zheng, Benxing; Li, Qichun (1978). "Distribution, Feature and Variations of Glaciers in China" (PDF). World Glacier Inventory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-12-386917-3.
- PMID 34931039.
- ^ "Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion". Reuters. 4 June 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
- S2CID 210933887.
- S2CID 134015944.
- ^ "Glaciers melting at alarming speed". People's Daily Online. 24 July 2007. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-309-26098-5.
- ^ .
- ^ "Photograph of Tsho Rolpa".
- ^ Tsho Rolpa
- ^ Drews, Carl. "Highest Lake in the World". Archived from the original on 18 August 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
- ^ S2CID 211081106.
- ^ a b c d e f Zurick & Pacheco 2006, p. 50.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Zurick & Pacheco 2006, pp. 50–51.
- ^ "Weather & Season Info of Nepal". Classic Himalaya. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ "Climate of the Himalayas". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
- ISBN 9780813173849
- S2CID 134568990.
- ^ Devitt, Terry (3 May 2001). "Climate shift linked to rise of Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau". University of Wisconsin–Madison News. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ S2CID 199491088. }}
- ^ S2CID 134572569.
- TheGuardian.com. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
- S2CID 134814572.
- S2CID 133800578.
- ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2010). Monosson, E. (ed.). "Extremophile". Encyclopedia of Earth. Washington, DC: National Council for Science and the Environment.
- S2CID 6061587. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 June 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-933273-76-4.
- ^ )
- ^ Agrawal, A; Perrin, N (2008). Climate adaptation, local institutions and rural livelihoods. University of Michigan, Michigan: IFRI Working Paper # W081-6. pp. (pp. 350–367).
- ^ Maple Croft. Climate Risk Dataset.
- ^ GoN a. "Climate Change Policy, 2011". Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|url=
(help) - ^ GoN a. "Climate Change Policy, 2011". Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|url=
(help) - ^ .
- .
- ^ S2CID 265597908.
- ^ a b c d Berstrand, s. "Fact Sheet | Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels (2021) | White Papers | EESI". www.eesi.org.
- ^ .
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Nepal". climateactiontracker.org.
- ^ PMID 36480087.
- ^ S2CID 219281555.
- ^ BMP. "Fire Lines and Lanes" (PDF). BMP No. 12, Fire Lines and Lanes.
- ISBN 978-81-7835-723-2.
- ^ "To heaven and back". The Times of India. 11 January 2012. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-322-1925-5.
- ISBN 978-0-500-51088-9.
- ^ PMID 23281594.
- ^ Cantor, Kimberly (14 July 2016). "Paro, Bhutan: The Tiger's Nest". Huffington Post. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
- ^ a b c Zurick, David; Julsun, Pacheco; Basanta, Raj Shrestha; Birendra, Bajracharya (2006). Illustrated Atlas of the Himalaya. Lexington: U of Kentucky.
- ISBN 978-962-217-810-6.
- ^ "Tibetan monks: A controlled life". BBC News. 20 March 2008.
- JSTOR 44137539.
- ^ "Himalayan Forests Disappearing". Earth Island Journal. 21 (4): 7–8. 2006.
Sources
General
- Wester, Philippus; Mishra, Arabinda; Mukherji, Aditi; Shrestha, Arun Bhakta, eds. (2019), The Hindu Kush Himalya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People, Springer Open, ICIMOD, HIMAP, LCCN 2018954855
- Zurick, David; Pacheco, Julsun (2006), Illustrated Atlas of the Himalayas, with Basanta Shrestha and Birendra Bajracharya, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, OCLC 1102237054
Geology
- Chakrabarti, B. K. (2016). Geology of the Himalayan Belt: Deformation, Metamorphism, Stratigraphy. Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-802021-0.
- Davies, Geoffrey F. (2022). Stories from the Deep Earth: How Scientists Figured Out What Drives Tectonic Plates and Mountain Building. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. S2CID 245636487.
- Frisch, Wolfgang; Meschede, Martin; Blakey, Ronald (2011). Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-76503-5.
Climate
- Clift, Peter D.; Plumb, R. Alan (2008), The Asian Monsoon: Causes, History and Effects, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-84799-5
- Barry, Roger E (2008), Mountain Weather and Climate (3rd ed.), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-86295-0
Ecology
Society
Pilgrimage and Tourism
- Bleie, Tone (2003), "Pilgrim Tourism in the Central Himalayas: The Case of Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, Nepal", Mountain Research and Development, 23 (2), International Mountain Society: 177–184, S2CID 56120507
- Howard, Christopher A (2016), Mobile Lifeworlds: An Ethnography of Tourism and Pilgrimage in the Himalayas, New York: Routledge, ISBN 9780367877989
- Humbert-Droz, Blaise (2017), "Impacts of Tourism and Military Presence on Wetlands and Their Avifauna in the Himalayas", in Prins, Herbert H. T.; Namgail, Tsewang (eds.), Bird Migration across the Himalayas Wetland Functioning amidst Mountains and Glaciers, Foreword by H.H. The Dali Lama, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 343–358, ISBN 978-1-107-11471-5
- Lim, Francis Khek Ghee (2007), "Hotels as sites of power: tourism, status, and politics in Nepal Himalaya", Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, New Series, 13 (3), Royal Anthropological Institute: 721–738,
- Nyaupane, Gyan P.; Chhetri, Netra (2009), "Vulnerability to Climate Change of Nature-Based Tourism in the Nepalese Himalayas", Tourism Geographies, 11 (1): 95–119, S2CID 55042146
- Nyaupane, Gyan P.; Timothy, Dallen J., eds. (2022), Tourism and Development in the Himalya: Social, Environmental, and Economic Forces, Routledge Cultural Heritage and Tourism Series, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 9780367466275
- Pati, Vishwambhar Prasad (2020), Sustainable Tourism Development in the Himalya: Constraints and Prospects, Environmental Science and Engineering, Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature, S2CID 229256111
- Serenari, Christopher; Leung, Yu-Fai; Attarian, Aram; Franck, Chris (2012), "Understanding environmentally significant behavior among whitewater rafting and trekking guides in the Garhwal Himalaya, India", Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20 (5): 757–772, S2CID 153859477
Mountaineering and Trekking
Further reading
- ISBN 81-7824-052-1.
- Berreman, Gerald Duane, Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change, 2nd rev. ed., Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997.
- Edmundson, Henry, Tales from the Himalaya, Vajra Books, Kathmandu, 2019. ISBN 978-9937-9330-3-2.
- Everest, the IMAX movie (1998). ISBN 0-7888-1493-1.
- Fisher, James F., Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal, 1990. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990. ISBN 0-520-06941-2.
- ISBN 0-8160-1994-0and New Delhi: Bookwise, 1987.
- Gupta, Raj Kumar, Bibliography of the Himalayas, Gurgaon, Indian Documentation Service, 1981.
- ISBN 0-89886-361-9.
- ISBN 978-0-300-11501-7.
- Ives, Jack D. and Messerli, Bruno, The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation. London / New York, Routledge, 1989. ISBN 0-415-01157-4.
- Lall, J.S. (ed.) in association with Moddie, A.D., The Himalaya, Aspects of Change. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1981. ISBN 0-19-561254-X.
- Nandy, S.N., Dhyani, P.P. and Samal, P.K., Resource Information Database of the Indian Himalaya, Almora, GBPIHED, 2006.
- ISBN 81-901326-0-1.
- Swami Tapovan Maharaj, Wanderings in the Himalayas, English Edition, Madras, Chinmaya Publication Trust, 1960. Translated by T.N. Kesava Pillai.
- Tilman, H. W., Mount Everest, 1938, Cambridge University Press, 1948.
- Turner, Bethan, et al. Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010: Himalaya and Vicinity. Denver, United States Geological Survey, 2013.
External links
- The Digital Himalaya research project at Cambridge and Yale (archived)
- Geology of the Himalayan mountains Archived 16 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- Birth of the Himalaya
- South Asia's Troubled Waters Journalistic project at the Pulitzer Centre for Crisis Reporting (archived)
- Biological diversity in the Himalayas Encyclopedia of Earth