Hindu–Islamic relations

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Interactions between Muslims and Hindus began in the 7th century, after the advent of the former in the Arabian Peninsula. These interactions were mainly by trade throughout the Indian Ocean. Historically, these interactions formed contrasting patterns in northern and southern India. While there is a history of conquest and domination in the north, Hindu-Muslim relations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been peaceful.^[1] However, historical evidence has shown that violence had existed by the year 1700 A.D.^[2]

In the 16th century, the

During the 17th to 20th centuries, India was ruled by the British, who introduced a policy of divide and rule to maintain their control over the country.^[12][13][14] The British also introduced a system of separate electorates, which further exacerbated the divide between the Hindu and Muslim communities.^[15][16] The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the First War of Independence, was a major uprising against British rule in India. The rebellion was fueled by a range of grievances, including economic exploitation, social and religious discrimination, and political oppression.^[17][18][19] While the rebellion was not solely based on religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims, these tensions did play a role in fueling the conflict. During the rebellion, there were instances of both Muslim and Hindu soldiers and civilians fighting together against the British, as well as instances of conflict between the two communities.^[20][21][22]

Islam and Hinduism share some ritual practices, such as

Islam is a monotheistic religion in which God is called Allah, and the final Islamic prophet is Muhammad, whom Muslims believe delivered the central Islamic scripture, the Qurān.^[24] Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal faith of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as Adam (believed to be the first man), Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, among others; these earlier revelations are attributed to Judaism and Christianity, which are regarded in Islam as spiritual predecessor faiths.^[25][26] The Quran and the Ḥadīth literature are the primary Islamic scriptures, while the sunnah consists of the Islamic traditional customs and practices which all Muslims are expected to follow. Throughout its rich history, Islamic civilization has made notable scientific achievements which encompassed a wide range of subject areas especially medicine, mathematics, astronomy, agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics.^[27][28][29] The consequence of Islam's rigorous monotheism led to a degree of panentheism, sharing similarities with the Hindu idea of the Absolute (Brahman).^[30] The Islamic mystical tradition predates contact with Hinduism, and Hinduistic monotheistic interpretations seem to be influenced by Islamic Sufism.^[30] The concept of Brahman was rarely subject of criticism from the perceptive of Islamic tawhid, rather the Hindu belief that prophecy wouldn't be necessary to guide mankind.^[31]

God

Despite the obvious discrepancy between Islamic monotheism and Hindu polytheism, some Muslim authors showed approval of the Hindu religion, especially the to the concept of Brahman. Sometimes, Brahmans were even excepted from the Jizya (taxes for non-Muslims).^[51][52] Gardizi identifies the God of the Brahmans with Allah.^[53]

Ibn al-Jawzi (1116 – 1201) criticizes in his Talbīs Iblīs (the deception of Satan) that the Brahmans are led astray by means of denying the prophets and their performance of self-harming rituals to get closer to God, but not by their lack of "monotheism".^[54]

Al-Biruni famously recorded the beliefs of Hindus in a descriptive manner. He notes that although the common people would worship idols, the educated people would be "entirely free from worshipping anything but God alone and would never dream of worshipping an image manufactured to represent him." He does not blame idolatry on Hinduism, but to a lack of proper education. The difference between monotheistic religions and Hinduism would not be that strong, since all uneducated people, even among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, would need concrete objects to worship.^[53]

Amir Khusrau (1253 – 1325) writes that Hindus have gone astray, but so have other religions and Hinduism would still consist of beliefs shared by Muslims: They would believe in the oneness and eternity of God as creator and sustainer. For that reason, he favors Hinduism before materialists (dahriyya), dualists (thanawiyya), Christianity who attribute to God spirit and progeny, and the star-worshippers (akhtariyyan) who acknowledge seven deities. The Hindu (precisely Brahmanist) would worship animals, stones, and the sun, but the Brahmanist accepts that they do not really bear likeness to God and are God's creation, they are only worshipped due to tradition.^[53]

Although there are a number of diverse conceptions of God and deities within Hinduism, most fuqaha (Muslim jurists), such as Muslim heresiographer al-Shahrastani, consider all of them to be polytheistic and blasphemous. Opposition towards Brahmanism stems from the polytheistic teachings within Hindu-culture. The Brahmans would have taught to the people not that the idols are symbols of God, but deities themselves.^[55] Nonetheless, most scholars agree that Hindus should be considered dhimmi.^[53]

Deities

Divine spirits in Hindu-lore were integrated into the monotheistic Islamic worldview by Muslim authors writing about Hinduism. They acknowledged that these spirits would exude a mesmerizing fascination on people, even Muslims couldn't withstand. Arab Muslim geographer al-Maqdisī (c. 945/946–991 CE) wrote about Indian deities, that they have the power to enchant people, even Muslims, to worship them. A Muslim is said to have visited them and abandoned Islam. Besides their power to distract even Muslims from worshiping Allah, they may have real magical powers and even grant their worshippers wishes.^[56]

In al-Tabasi's (d. 1089) compendium about magic and sorcery Mahakal, an epithet for the Hindu deity Shiva, is mentioned. Abu Sa'id al Gardizi (fl. 1049) further elaborates that this deva (dīv) would have the power to teach incantations ('aza'im) and how to perform wonders ('aja'ib).^[57]

To harmonize the existence of such spirits with the monotheistic worldview of Islam, it was assumed that the Indian deities were created by Allah, however, prior to the beings revealed in the Quran. Abu Ali Bal'ami (d. 992–997) asserts that the deva (div) were created long before the angels and jinn.^[58]: 40 Unlike jinn, the div would have refused to obey the Prophet Solomon.^[59]

In the Nabivamsa, by Syed Sultan, identifies the suras and asura with jinn and jann respectively. The Hindu spirits are supposed to be created over 4 million years ago, while angels (phiristā) settle on earth afterwards. Since the different beings are constantly at war, Niranjan sents the Vedas to the Asuras and Devas, but eventually decides to command the angels to get rid of them. Afterwards, God creates the progenitor of humankind Adam. This story reflects early hadith material regarding the life of jinn before Adam was created. According to Islamic sources, God let the jinn live on earth and sent angels under the leadership of Azazil as authority over them. Later, God decides to replace them by humankind.^[60]

Scriptures and messengers

The

According to Muslim scholars, Brahmans reject that God would send messengers. The Brahmans argue, if God wanted humans to understand his will, he would have created mankind accordingly. Thus, they assert, that human reason is sufficient to understand God's will.[31] Muslim scholars on the other hand assert, that prophecy is necessary for mankind in religious matters. Asharites argue that justification of morality relies on revelation. In contrast, Maturidites assert morality can be detected by reason, but mankind requires prophecy for supernatural matters.^[68]

Similarities

According to Islam, after death, one either enters Paradise (Jannah) or Hell (Jahannam), depending on their deeds. Unlike Muslims, Hindus believe in a cycle of reincarnation.^[69] However, the concept of higher and lower realms of existence can be found in Hinduism, though the realms are temporary places.^[70]

Both Muslims and Hindus acknowledge demons (Shaitan/Asura), who are constantly inciting war between the desires of humans and the Divine.^{[clarification needed][71]} Asuras are part of Hindu mythology along with Devas, Yakshas and Rakshasas, and are featured in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism.^[72][73] Asuras are sometimes considered nature spirits. They constantly battle with the devas.^[74]

Both believe in the existence of an entirety Supreme Power, either called

Pilgrimage is found in both religions: Hajj & Umrah to Mecca in Islam and Kumbh Mela and Tirtha Yatra in Hinduism.^[80] Muslims walk seven times around the

The 10th-century Persian polymath

Sufi theologian Martin Lings says,

Prince Dara Shikoh (d.1619), the Sufi son of the Mogul Emperor Shah Jahan, was able to affirm that Sufism and Advaita Vedantism [Hinduism] are essentially the same, with a surface difference of terminology.^[95]

Al-Biruni observed in his history of India that the fundamental ideas behind metempsychosis or reincarnation in Hinduism are not very different from the concept of the immanence of God in all things and the idea of a universal soul in some Sufi doctrines, and that for Sufis who believe in such things, "the course of metempsychosis is of no consequence".^[96]

The Sufi poet

I died as mineral and became a plant,

I died as plant and rose to animal. I died as animal and I was man.

Why should I fear?

When was I less by dying? Yet once more I shall die as man

To soar with angels blest;

But even from angelhood I must pass on..

— Jaladuddin Rumi (Translation by Arberry, A.J. Classical Persian Literature. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958.)

The 9th-century Iranian mystic

In Hinduism, food habits are left as a choice for Hindus, and both meat and alcohol consumption is accepted. However, some Hindu communities prefer vegetarianism or lacto-vegetarianism due to their belief in ahimsa or non-violence.^[108] There are varied opinions regarding the permissibility of eating meat in Hinduism, depending upon the interpretation of the Hindu scriptures. Some Hindu sects emphasize vegetarianism. Some Hindus avoid eating cow-based beef, but they may eat water buffalo-based beef or pork as an alternative.^[109]

Slaughtering a cow is considered to be a religious taboo by Hindus, who consider the cow to be a sacred animal.

Circumcision

Khitan, the religious rite of circumcision, is considered obligatory or recommendable for male Muslims.^[110] The Qur'an does not mention circumcision explicitly in any verse, but it is noted in the Hadiths of Islam. Circumcision is not compulsory in Islam, but is an important ritual aimed at improving cleanliness. It is strongly encouraged but not enforced.^[111]

Circumcision is not a religious requirement in Hinduism. Hinduism discourages non-medical

Hindu cultural texts such as the

Islam requires egalitarianism and is against discrimination based on caste, creed or race^{[118][119][120]} Islamic texts do not segregate Muslims. Hadīth, however, mentions the prophecy of the Muslim Ummah being separated into 73 sects based on practices of Islam, not class. There are differences in practices within Muslim communities as traditions differ according to geography, but spiritually all Muslims are equal.^{[121][122][123]}

Consanguineous marriage

Islamic scriptures compel the payment of a special tax called Jizya from dhimmi, who are not liable to pay Zaka'at, the non-Muslims who live in a Muslim state.^[128][129] Historically, the jizya tax has been understood in Islam as a fee for protection provided by the Muslim ruler to non-Muslims, for the exemption from military service for non-Muslims, for the permission to practice a non-Muslim faith with communal autonomy in a Muslim state.^{[130][131][132]} If anyone could not afford this tax, they would not have to pay anything.^[133] There is no jizya tax upon women, children, elders as well as the poor and the ill.^[134] Also those who joined the military service were also not liable to pay the tax.^[135]

There is no such concept of "Jizya" in Hindu texts.^[citation needed]

Slavery

Muslim and Hindus societies have practiced slavery many times in history

The practice of slavery in early and late Vedic era of Hinduism is documented. However, some Hindu texts use the term dasa. Some scholars translate this as slave,^[138] while other scholars have translated it as servant and religious devotee.^[139][140] Arthashastra text of Hinduism dedicates a chapter to dasa where a financially bankrupt individual may become a servant of another. Arthashastra grants a dasa legal rights, and declares abusing, hurting and raping a dasa as a crime.^[138][141]

Islam's approach to slavery added the idea that freedom was the natural state of affairs for human beings and in line with this it limited the opportunities to enslave people, commended the freeing of slaves and regulated the way slaves were treated:

• Islam greatly limited those who could be enslaved and under what circumstances (although these restrictions were often evaded)
• Islam treated slaves as human beings as well as property
• Islam banned the mistreatment of slaves – indeed the tradition repeatedly stresses the importance of treating slaves with kindness and compassion
• Islam allowed slaves to achieve their freedom and made freeing slaves a virtuous act
• Islam barred Muslims from enslaving other Muslims

The Quran and the Hadiths strongly discourage the institution of slaves.^[142][143] Islam, in many cases, encouraged freeing of slave act of benevolence, and expiation of sins. Islam only allows slavery through certain means and many Islamic scholars claim Islam blocked many ways through which people used to own slaves.^[144][145] Most interpretations of the Quran agree that the Quran envisions an ideal society as one in which slavery no longer exists.^{[146][147][148][149]}

Blasphemy

Blasphemy against God and against Muhammad is a religious crime in Islam.^[150] The Quran in verse and many Hadiths discuss blasphemy and its punishment.^[150] A variety of actions, speeches, or behavior can constitute blasphemy in Islam.^[151] Some examples include insulting or cursing Allah or the Prophets or drawing offensive cartoons, tearing or burning holy literature of Islam, and creating or using music, painting, video, or novels to mock or criticize prophet Muhammad are some examples of blasphemous acts. Punishment can range from imprisonment or flogging to execution.^[151][152]

Although the concept of "divine blasphemy" or "heresy" does not exist in Hinduism, and ancient Hindu texts make no provisions for blasphemy.^{[153][154][155]} According to 2018 annual report of U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, there has been Hindu nationalist groups through their campaign to "Saffronize" India through violence, intimidation, and harassment against non-Hindus and according to the data, approximately one-third of state governments enforced anti-conversion and/or anti-cow slaughter laws against non-Hindus.^[156][157]

Apostasy

Apostasy, defined in Islam as the conscious act by a Muslim of leaving Islam or blaspheming against it, is a religious crime according to some Islamic schools of law.^{[158][159][160]}

Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a

Both religions state that there should be no compulsion in religion.[167]^[168]

In popular culture

Music

There have been instances of syncretic cooperation on music with Islamic and Hindu themes. For example, the national poet of

• Alberuni's India
• Criticism of Hinduism
• Criticism of Islam
• Chapters on Indian religions
• Din-i Ilahi
• Kalki Avatar and Muhammad
• Legend of Cheraman Perumals#The story of Tajuddeen
• Divisions of the world in Islam
• Hindu–Muslim unity
• Hinduism and other religions
• Islam and other religions
• Islam in South Asia
• Persecution of Hindus by Muslims
• Sufism in India
• Violence against Muslims in India

References

Bibliography

Wikiquote has quotations related to Hindu–Islamic relations.

Relations

• Friedrichs, Jörg (2018), Hindu–Muslim Relations: What Europe Might Learn from India, Taylor & Francis,
  ISBN 978-0-429-86207-6
• ISBN 9788122007831
• Sikand, Yoginder (2004), Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations, Routledge,
  ISBN 978-0415314862

Islam in South Asia

• Holt, Peter M. (1977), Peter Malcolm Holt; Ann K. S. Lambton; Bernard Lewis (eds.), The Cambridge History of Islam (New ed.), Cambridge University Press,
  ISBN 978-0521291378
• Khalidi, Omar (2009), Shiping Hua (ed.), Islam and democratization in Asia, Cambria Press,
  ISBN 978-1604976328
• Metcalf, Barbara D. (2009), Barbara D. Metcalf (ed.), Islam in South Asia in Practice, Princeton University Press,
  ISBN 978-0691044200

Communal violence

• Wilkinson, Steven I. (2006), Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India, Cambridge University Press,
  ISBN 978-0521536059
• Reference, Blackwell (1999). Townson, Duncan (ed.). "Indian communal massacres (1946–7)". Blackwell Reference.
  ISBN 9780631209379
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• Markovits, Claude. "India from 1900 to 1947". Mass Violence.Org.
• D'Costa, Bina (2010), Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia, Routledge,
  ISBN 978-0415565660
• Ghosh, Partha S. (2004), Ranabir Samaddar (ed.), Peace Studies: An Introduction To the Concept, Scope, and Themes, SAGE,
  ISBN 978-0761996606
• Hussain, Monirul (2009), Sibaji Pratim Basu (ed.), The Fleeing People of South Asia: Selections from Refugee Watch, Anthem, p. 261,
  ISBN 978-8190583572
• Berglund, Henrik (2011), Galina Lindquist; Don Handelman (eds.), Religion, Politics, and Globalization: Anthropological Approaches, Berghahn, p. 105,
  ISBN 978-1845457716
• Smith, Glenn (2005), Asvi Warman Adam; Dewi Fortuna Anwar (eds.), Violent Internal Conflicts in Asia Pacific: Histories, Political Economies, and Policies, Yayasan Obor,
  ISBN 9789794615140
• Pandey, Gyanendra (2005), Routine violence: nations, fragments, histories, Stanford University Press,
  ISBN 978-0804752640
• Ghassem-Fachandi, Parvis (2012), Pogrom in Gujarat: Hindu Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Violence in India, Princeton University Press, p. 2,
  ISBN 978-0691151779
• Metcalf, Barbara (2013), Deana Heath; Chandana Mathur (eds.), Communalism and Globalization in South Asia and its Diaspora, Routledge,
  ISBN 978-0415857857

General

• ISBN 978-0-19-873113-9
• ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7
  .
• Chua, Amy (2007). Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance – and Why They Fall. Doubleday.
  ISBN 978-0-385-51284-8
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• Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press,
  ISBN 978-1898723936
• ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1