Hindu texts

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Part of a series on
Hindu scriptures and texts
Vedas

Divisions

Upanishads
Rig vedic

Sama vedic

Yajur vedic

Atharva vedic

Other scriptures
Related Hindu texts
Vedangas
Puranas
Brahma puranas

Vaishnava puranas

Shaiva puranas

Shakta puranas

Itihasa
Sangam literature
Shastras and sutras
Timeline

Hindu texts or Hindu scriptures are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within

Yajnavalkya Smriti in the list of Hindu scriptures as well.[1]

History

There are two historic classifications of

rishis). These comprise the central canon of Hinduism.[4][6] It includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts – the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads.[7] Of the Shrutis, the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[8][9]

The Smriti texts are a specific body of

Sutras and Shastras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, the Puranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, the Bhasyas, and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.[10][11]

Many ancient Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit and other regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in non-Indian languages.[1] Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to the next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.[12][13] This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.[12][13]

Shruti

The Shruti texts, defined as "that which is heard", are texts that are believed to be divine revelations of God and were heard by ancient rishis thousands of years ago. Thus, an author is not attributed to these texts.[14] The origin language of these texts is Sanskrit.[14] The Vedas are considered Shruti texts. The Vedas consist of four parts: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.[15] Each Veda is subcategorized into Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.[15]

Vedas

Main article: Vedas
Manuscripts of 18th-century Hindu texts in Sanskrit(Devanagari) and Odia.

The four Vedas (

apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[20] and "impersonal, authorless".[21][22][23] The knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither authored by human nor by divine source, but seen, heard and transmitted by sages.[6]

Vedas are also called

smṛti ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the Deity.[citation needed] In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to the deity responsible for creation, Brahma.[25]

There are four Vedas: the

Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[26][28][29]

Upanishads

Main article: Upanishads

The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.[8][note 1] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[9][30]

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as

Upanishads,[32][33] and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[33] The central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[8][9][note 2]

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which ten are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the

Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through medieval Hinduism. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.[40][41]

Smriti

Main article: Smriti

Smriti is the classification of literature which includes various scriptures and Itihasas (epics like the

Darshanas. This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[42][43]

The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE. The

Agama literature.[45]

A 19th century manuscript of the Hindu text Bhagavad Gita

Puranas

Main article: Puranas

The Puranas, which mean "history" or "old", are Sanskrit texts which were composed between 3rd century BCE and 1000 CE.

Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi.[50][51]

The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[52] and it includes diverse topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.[47][49][50] The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.[48]

There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas):

Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.[55] The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.[56][57] The Bhagavata Purana emphasizes bhakti (devotion) towards Krishna. The Bhagavata Purana is a key text in Krishna bhakti literature.[46][58]

Mahabharata

Main article: Mahabharata

The Mahābhārata, which translates to "Great story of Bharat", was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.

Vedavyasa and is made up of over 100,000 shlokas.[63]

The plot of the Mahabharata covers the events of the war between two groups of cousins (the Pandavas and the Kauravas) and the aftermath of the Kurukshetra War.[63] The Mahabharata also teaches about dharma (duty), the stories of many key figures in Hinduism, and includes the Bhagavad Gita.[15]

The Bhagavad Gita is made up of 700 shlokas and is the discussion between Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield before the start of the war. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita teaches Arjuna about atma (soul), God, moksha, and dharma.[64]

Ramayana

Main article: Ramayana

The Ramayana, an ancient Sanskrit text with the earliest part believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE, is attributed to the sage Valmiki and contains over 24,000 verses.[65]

The epic covers the life journey of Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, along with his wife Sita, and brother Lakshmana. Central to the plot is the fourteen-year exile endured by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, during which Sita is abducted by Ravana of Lanka. Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana, Hanuman (a devotee of Rama), and an army, engages in a battle with Ravana, ultimately emerging victorious with Rama's slaying of Ravana. The epic concludes with Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana's return to Ayodhya, where Rama is crowned king and reigns over Ayodhya.[15]

Other Hindu texts

Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows:

Field Reviewer Reference
Agriculture and food Gyula Wojtilla [66]
Architecture P Acharya,
B Dagens		 [67][68]
Devotionalism Karen Pechelis [69]
Drama, dance and performance arts AB Keith,
Rachel Baumer and James Brandon,
Mohan Khokar		 [70][71][72]
Education, school system Hartmut Scharfe [73]
Epics John Brockington [74]
Gnomic and didactic literature Ludwik Sternbach [75]
Grammar Hartmut Scharfe [76]
Law and jurisprudence J Duncan M Derrett [77]
Lexicography Claus Vogel [78]
Mathematics and exact sciences Kim Plofker
David Pingree		 [79][80]
Medicine MS Valiathan,
Kenneth Zysk		 [81][82]
Music Emmie te Nijenhuis,
Lewis Rowell		 [83][84]
Mythology Ludo Rocher [85]
Philosophy Karl Potter [86]
Poetics Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard [87]
Gender and Sex Johann Jakob Meyer [88]
State craft, politics Patrick Olivelle [89]
Tantrism, Agamas Teun Goudriaan [90]
Temples, Sculpture Stella Kramrisch [91]
Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads) Jan Gonda [92]

Historical significance

The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and science forms in India such as

IAST: Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.[94][96] Richmond et al. estimate the Natasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.[94][95]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation. Olivelle (1998)
  2. ^ Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.

References

  1. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-20778-3
    , p. ix–xliii
  2. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4
    , pp. 46–52, 76–77
  3. ISBN 978-0-679-41078-2
    , pages 1–11 and Preface
  4. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8
    , page 645
  5. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8
    , pp. 656–657
  6. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7914-5386-5
    .
  7. ^
    ISBN 0-7190-1867-6
    , pp. 2–3
  8. ^ a b c Olivelle 1998, p. 3.
  9. ^
    ISBN 978-0-226-61847-0
    , pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
  10. ^ Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pp. 103–130
  11. ISBN 978-0-8248-2085-5
    , pp. 16–18
  12. ^
    ISBN 1-4051-3251-5
    , pp. 68–71
  13. ^
    ISBN 978-0-521-44820-8
    , pp. 67–77
  14. ^ a b Roger R. Keller, "Hinduism," Light and Truth: A Latter-day Saint Guide to World Religions (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2012), 16–39.
  15. ^ a b c d "Hindu Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  16. ^
    ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0
    .
  17. ^ see e.g. MacDonell 2004, pp. 29–39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
  18. ^ see e.g. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68; MacDonell 2004, pp. 29–39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
  19. ^ Sanujit Ghose (2011). "Religious Developments in Ancient India" in Ancient History Encyclopedia.
  20. ^ Vaman Shivaram Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary, see apauruSeya
  21. ^ D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, pp. 196–197
  22. ISBN 978-0-19-538496-3
    , page 290
  23. ISBN 978-1-4094-6681-9
    , p. 128
  24. ^ Apte 1965, p. 887
  25. ^ Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 85–86
  26. ^
    ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0
    , pages 35–39
  27. ^ Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
  28. ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2
    , page 285
  29. ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2
  30. ISBN 978-1-59257-846-7
    , pp. 208–210
  31. ^ Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
  32. ^ Mahadevan 1956, p. 59.
  33. ^
    ISBN 978-0-88706-139-4
    , pp. 35–36
  34. ISBN 978-0-231-14485-8
    , Chapter 1
  35. ISBN 978-1-58638-021-2
    , pp. 298–299
  36. ^ Piparaiya, Ram K. (2003). Ten Upanishads of Four Vedas. Motilal Banarsidass.
  37. ^ Mahadevan 1956, p. 56.
  38. ^ Olivelle 1998a, p. 12-14.
  39. ^ King & Ācārya 1995, p. 52.
  40. ^ Ranade 1926, p. 12.
  41. ^ Varghese 2008, p. 101.
  42. ISBN 978-0-231-14987-7
    , pp. 2–5
  43. ISBN 978-81-208-0779-2
  44. ISBN 978-3-447-02676-5
  45. ISBN 978-3-447-02091-6
    , pp. 7–14
  46. ^ a b c "Puranas". UCLA Social Sciences.
  47. ^
    ISBN 978-0-415-17281-3
    , pp. 437–439
  48. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7914-1382-1
    , pp. 185–204
  49. ^
    ISBN 978-1-57003-449-7
    , pp. 139
  50. ^
    ISBN 978-3-447-02522-5
    , pp. 1–5, 12–21
  51. ISBN 978-81-223-1020-7
    .
  52. ISBN 0-877790426
    , page 915
  53. ^
    ISBN 978-81-208-3972-4
    , pp. xii, 4
  54. ISBN 978-0-415-17281-3
    , p. 503
  55. ISBN 978-3-447-02522-5
    , pp. 12–13, 134–156, 203–210
  56. ISBN 978-0-520-20778-3
    , page xli
  57. ISBN 978-81-208-1919-1
    .
  58. ^ "Hindu Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  59. ISBN 978-0-19-005411-3. Archived
    from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
  60. ^ Brockington (1998, p. 26)
  61. ^ Pattanaik, Devdutt (13 December 2018). "How did the 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata' come to be (and what has 'dharma' got to do with it)?". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 14 August 2020. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  62. ^ Van Buitenen; The Mahabharata – 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction (Authorship and Date)
  63. ^ a b Doniger, Wendy (5 February 2024). "Mahabharata". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  64. ^ "The Bhagavad Gītā". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  65. ^ Basu, Anindita (30 August 2016). "Ramayana". World History Encyclopedia.
  66. ISBN 978-3-447-05306-8
  67. ^ PK Acharya (1946), An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture, Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6
  68. ISBN 978-81-208-3525-2
  69. ISBN 978-0-19-535190-3
  70. ^ The Sanskrit Drama, Oxford University Press
  71. ISBN 81-208-0772-3
  72. ISBN 978-0-7206-0574-7
  73. ISBN 978-90-04-12556-8
  74. ISBN 978-90-04-10260-6
  75. ISBN 978-3-447-01546-2
  76. ISBN 3-447-01722-8
  77. ISBN 3-447-01519-5
  78. ISBN 3-447-01722-8
  79. ISBN 978-0-691-12067-6
  80. ISBN 978-0-87169-213-9
  81. ISBN 978-81-250-2505-4
  82. ISBN 978-81-208-1401-1
  83. ISBN 978-3-447-01831-9
  84. ISBN 0-226-73033-6
  85. ISBN 978-3-447-02522-5
  86. ISBN 81-208-0309-4
  87. ISBN 3-447-01722-8
  88. ISBN 978-1-4826-1588-3
  89. ISBN 978-0-19-989182-5
  90. ISBN 3-447-02091-1
  91. ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3
  92. ISBN 3-447-01603-5
  93. ^ Ananda W. P. Guruge, 1991, The Society of the Ramayana, Page 180-200.
  94. ^
    ISBN 978-81-208-1234-5
    .
  95. ^ a b Richmond, Swann & Zarrilli 1993, p. 30.
  96. ^ Tarla Mehta 1995, pp. xxiv, xxxi–xxxii, 17.

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Manuscripts collections (incomplete)

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hindu texts.

Online resources:

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hindu_texts&oldid=1217896854"