God in Hinduism

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Ōṃ is given many meanings and layers of symbolism in the Upanishads, including "the sacred sound, the Yes!, the Vedas, the udgitha (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth, the Ultimate Reality, the finest essence, the cause of the universe, the essence of life, the Brahman, the ātman, the vehicle of deepest knowledge, and self-knowledge (ātma jñāna)".[1]

In Hinduism, the concept of God varies in its diverse religio-philosophical traditions.[6] Hinduism comprises a wide range of beliefs about God and Divinity, such as henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, agnosticism, atheism, and nontheism.[9]

Forms of theism find mention in the Bhagavad Gita. Emotional or loving devotion (bhakti) to a primary god such as avatars of Vishnu (Krishna for example), Shiva, and Devi (as emerged in the early medieval period) is now known as the Bhakti movement.[10][11] Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major theistic Hindu traditions: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism worship the Hindu deities Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi as the Supreme God respectively, or consider all Hindu deities as aspects of the same, Supreme Reality or the eternal and formless metaphysical Absolute, called Brahman in Hinduism, or, translated from Sanskrit terminology, "God Itself". Other minor sects such as Ganapatya and Saura focus on the deities Ganesha or Surya as the Supreme.

Hindus following Advaita Vedānta consider ātman, the individual soul within every living being, to be the same as Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi,[12][13][14] or, alternatively, identical to the eternal and formless metaphysical Absolute called Brahman.[21] Such a philosophical system of Advaita or non-dualism as it developed in the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in the Upanishads, was popularized by the Indian philosopher, Vedic scholar, teacher, and mystic Ādi Śaṅkara in the 8th century CE, and has been vastly influential on Hinduism.[22][23][24] Therefore, Advaitins believe that Brahman is the sole Supreme Being (Para Brahman) and Ultimate Reality that exists beyond the (mis)perceived reality of a world of multiple objects and transitory persons.[25]

Hindus following

Bengali Vaishnavism.[29]

Henotheism, kathenotheism, and equitheism

To what is One

They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni,
and he is heavenly-winged Garutman.
To what is One, sages give many a title.

Rigveda 1.164.46
Transl: Klaus Klostermaier[30][31]

Henotheism was the term used by scholars such as Max Müller to describe the theology of Vedic religion.[32][33] Müller noted that the hymns of the Rigveda, the oldest scripture of Hinduism, mention many deities, but praises them successively as the "one ultimate, supreme God" (called saccidānanda in some traditions), alternatively as "one supreme Goddess",[34] thereby asserting that the essence of the deities was unitary (ekam), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic manifestations of the same concept of the divine (God).[33][35][36]

The idea that there can be and are plural perspectives for the same divine or spiritual principle repeats in the Vedic texts. For example, other than hymn 1.164 with this teaching,[30] the more ancient hymn 5.3 of the Rigveda states:

You at your birth are Varuna, O Agni. When you are kindled, you are Mitra. In you, O son of strength, all gods are centered. You are Indra to the mortal who brings oblation. You are Aryaman, when you are regarded as having the mysterious names of maidens, O Self-sustainer.

— Rigveda 5.3.1-2, Translator: Hermann Oldenberg[37][38]

Related terms to henotheism are

monolatrism and kathenotheism.[39] The latter term is an extension of "henotheism", from καθ' ἕνα θεόν (kath' hena theon) — "one god at a time".[40] Henotheism refers to a pluralistic theology wherein different deities are viewed to be of a unitary, equivalent divine essence.[33] Some scholars prefer the term monolatry to henotheism, to discuss religions where a single god is central, but the existence or the position of other gods is not denied.[39][36] Another term related to henotheism is "equitheism", referring to the belief that all gods are equal.[41]

Panentheism and non-theism

The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe.[45] The Vedic hymns treat it as "limitless, indescribable, absolute principle", thus the Vedic divine is something of a panentheism rather than simple henotheism.[45]

In late Vedic era, around the start of Upanishadic age (c. 800 BCE), theosophical speculations emerge that develop concepts which scholars variously call

nondualism or monism, as well as forms of non-theism and pantheism.[45][46][47] An example of the questioning of the concept of God, in addition to henotheistic hymns found therein, are in later portions of the Rigveda, such as the Nasadiya Sukta.[48]

Hinduism calls the metaphysical absolute concept as Brahman, incorporating within it the transcendent and immanent reality.[49][50][51] Different schools of thought interpret Brahman as either personal, impersonal or transpersonal. Ishwar Chandra Sharma describes it as "Absolute Reality, beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence, light and darkness, and of time, space and cause".[52]

Influential ancient and medieval Hindu philosophers, states philosophy professor Roy Perrett, teach their spiritual ideas with a world created ex nihilo and "effectively manage without God altogether".

samsara doctrines, as in other Indian religions.[55][56][57]

Monotheism

Monotheism is the belief in a single creator God and the lack of belief in any other Creator.[58][59] Hinduism is not a monolithic faith and different sects may or may not posit or require such a belief. Religion is considered a personal belief in Hinduism and followers are free to choose the different interpretations within the framework of karma and samsara. Many forms of Hinduism believe in a monotheistic God, such as Krishnaism, some schools of Vedanta, and Arya Samaj.[60][61][62]

Madhvacharya's monotheistic God

Dvaita theology wherein Vishnu was presented as a monotheistic God, similar to major world religions.[63][64] His writings led some such as George Abraham Grierson to suggest he was influenced by Christianity.[65]

Madhvacharya was misperceived and misrepresented by both Christian missionaries and Hindu writers during the colonial era scholarship.[66][67] The similarities in the primacy of one God, dualism and distinction between man and God, devotion to God, the son of God as the intermediary, predestination, the role of grace in salvation, as well as the similarities in the legends of miracles in Christianity and Madhvacharya's Dvaita tradition fed these stories.[66][67] Among Christian writers, G. A. Grierson creatively asserted that Madhva's ideas evidently were "borrowed from Christianity, quite possibly promulgated as a rival to the central doctrine of that faith".[68] Among Hindu writers, according to Sarma, S. C. Vasu creatively translated Madhvacharya's works to identify Madhvacharya with Christ, rather than compare their ideas.[69]

Modern scholarship rules out the influence of Christianity on Madhvacharya,[65][70] as there is no evidence that there ever was a Christian settlement where Madhvacharya grew up and lived, or that there was a sharing or discussion of ideas between someone with knowledge of the Bible and Christian narratives, and him.[67] Furthermore, many adherents consider the similarities to be superficial and insubstantial; for example, Madhvacharya postulates three co-eternal fundamental realities, consisting of Supreme Being (Vishnu or paramatman), individual Self (jīvātman), and inanimate matter.[71]

Brahman

Many traditions within Hinduism share the Vedic idea of a metaphysical ultimate reality and truth called Brahman. According to

kalpa (eon, cycle of existence).[77]

In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe.[78][79][80] In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.[79][81][82] It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.[78][83][84] Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.[78][85]

Brahman is a

Sat-cit-ānanda (truth-consciousness-bliss)[89][90] and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.[83][91][note 1][note 2]

Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of

non-dual schools of Hinduism such as the monist Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.[84][97][98]

The Upanishads contain several mahā-vākyas or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:[99]

Text Upanishad Translation Reference
अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि
aham brahmāsmi
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10 "I am Brahman" [100]
अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म
ayam ātmā brahma
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5 "The Self is Brahman" [101]
सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म
sarvam khalvidam brahma
Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 "All this is Brahman" [102]
एकमेवाद्वितीयम्
ekam evadvitiyam
Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1 "That [Brahman] is one, without a second" [103]
तत्त्वमसि
tat tvam asi
Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq. "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman") [104][105]
प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म
prajnānam brahma
Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7 "Knowledge is Brahman" [106]

Saguna and nirguna

While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of Brahman and Atman, they also expound on Brahman as

nirguna Brahman—the Brahman without attributes.[107] The nirguna Brahman is the Brahman as it really is, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing nirguna Brahman, but the Hinduism schools declare saguna Brahman to be ultimately illusory.[108] The concept of the saguna Brahman, such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.[108]

The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—Nirguna and Saguna.[109] Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[110] Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[110] The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.[109][111] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives: one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.[111] Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.[109] Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[109] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[111]

Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[112] Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.[112] These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.[109]

Ishvara

The Yogasutras of Patanjali use the term Ishvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara? These commentaries range from defining Isvara from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[113][114] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[115]

Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[116]

Sanskrit: क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैःपरामृष्टः पुरुषविशेष ईश्वरः ॥२४॥
– Yoga Sutras I.24

This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[117][118]

Among various

Yoga school of Hinduism, Isvara only means a specific deity such as Shiva
.

Svayam Bhagavan

Lord Krishna with goddess Radha

Svayam Bhagavan, a

Sanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or "directly Bhagavan."[119] Earlier commentators such as Madhvacharya translated the term Svayam Bhagavan as "he who has bhagavatta"; meaning "he who has the quality of possessing all good qualities".[120] The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the Bhagavata Purana
, and also within other sects of Vaishnavism.

The theological interpretation of Svayam Bhagavān differs with each tradition and the literal translation of the term has been understood in several distinct ways. Translated from the

Sanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or "directly Bhagavan".[119] Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".[121]

Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as primeval Lord or original Personality of Godhead, but also considers the terms such as Supreme Personality of Godhead and Supreme God as an equivalent to the term Svayam Bhagavan, and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayana and many of their associated Avatars.[122][123] It should be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avatars, this is only one of the names of god of Vaishnavism, who is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva and Krishna and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaishnavism.[124]

Krishnaism

Within Hinduism, Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.[125][126] Krishnaism is a tradition related to Vaishnavism wherein Krishna is considered Svayam Bhagavan, meaning 'God Himself', and this title is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme God.[127][128] Krishnaite traditions of Hinduism consider him to be the source of all avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself, or to be the same as Narayana. As such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam Bhagavan.[129][130][120]

In

Dvaita sub-school of Hindu philosophy,[132] the Pushtimarg tradition,[133] in the Nimbarka Sampradaya, where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself.[132][134] Gaudiya Vaishnavas and followers of the Pushtimarg tradition and Nimbarka Sampradaya use the Gopala Tapani Upanishad,[135] and the Bhagavata Purana, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the Svayam Bhagavan. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author Jiva Goswami in some of his works, such as Krishna-sandarbha.[119]

Vaishnavism

In other sub-traditions of Vaishnavism, Krishna is one of many aspects and

[136]

When followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaishnavism describe Krishna as "Svayam Bhagavan" it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all avatars and is considered to be the "paripurna Avatara", complete in all respects and the same as the original.[137] According to them Krishna is described in the Bhagavata Purana as the Purnavatara (or complete manifestation) of the Bhagavan, while other incarnations are called partial.

In

Pancaratra texts in Sanskrit.[140]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "not sublatable",[91] the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").
  2. ^ It is also defined as:
  3. Saguna Brahman
    , with qualities
  4. Nirguna Brahman
    , without qualities
  5. ^ Supreme

References

  1. , pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772
  2. ^ .
  3. ^
    OCLC 698586925. [...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus
    , or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.
  4. , Academic Press, 2008
  5. ^ MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
  6. ^ [2][3][4][5]
  7. Gita
    , is replete with sayings meaning that religious streams, though separate, head toward the same ocean of divinity.
  8. ^ Smart, Ninian (10 November 2020) [26 July 1999]. "Polytheism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
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  11. , page 129
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  13. , pages 16–19
  14. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4614-6087-9. For Hindus, especially those in the Advaita Vedanta tradition, Brahman is the undifferentiated reality underlying all existence. Brahman is the eternal first cause present everywhere and nowhere, beyond time and space, the indefinable Absolute. The gods are incarnations of Brahman. It can be said that everything that is Brahman. And it can be argued that Brahman is a monotheistic concept or at least a monistic
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  16. ^ .
  17. ^ William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God Archived 23 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University
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    OCLC 24174772. The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought, and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman
    , or the inner self and the cosmic self. [...] If we adhere to the thought that the Brahman is the cosmic principle governing the universe and Atman as its physical correlate, the essence of Upanishadic thought can be succinctly stated in the formula Brahman = Atman.
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  21. ^ Indich 2000, p. vii.
  22. ^ Fowler 2002, pp. 240–243.
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  31. ^ Sugirtharajah, Sharada, Imagining Hinduism: A Postcolonial Perspective, Routledge, 2004, p.44;
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  51. ^ Ishwar Chandra Sharma, Ethical Philosophies of India, Harper & Row, 1970, p.75.
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  76. .
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  89. , Chapter 1
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  100. ^ Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, pages 711–712
  101. ^ Sanskrit: छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.१ ॥तृतीयॊऽध्यायः॥ Wikisource
    English Translation:Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 Oxford University Press, page 48;
    Max Muller, The Upanisads at Google Books, Routledge, pages xviii–xix
  102. ^ Sanskrit: छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥ Wikisource
    English Translation:Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1 Oxford University Press, page 93;
    Max Muller, The Upanisads at Google Books, Routledge, pages xviii–xix
  103. ^ Sanskrit: छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥ Wikisource
    English Translation:Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 6.8, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 246–250
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  105. ^ Sanskrit: ऐतरेयोपनिषद् Wikisource
    English Translation:Max Muller, Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7 Oxford University Press, page 246
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  108. ^ , page 21
  109. ^ , pages xxvii–xxxiv
  110. ^ , pages 207–211
  111. ^ , page 2
  112. , pages 38-39
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  114. , page 86
  115. ^ Āgāśe, K. S. (1904). Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi. Puṇe: Ānandāśrama. p. 102.
  116. ^ aparAmRSTa, kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya Archived 17 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
  117. , pages 31-45
  118. ^ .
  119. ^ a b Dimock Jr, E.C.; Dimock, E.C. (1989). The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal. University of Chicago Press. page 132
  120. . For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself. p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"
  121. ^ Knapp, S. (2005). The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -. iUniverse. "Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies." page 161
  122. ^ Kim Knott (1993). "Contemporary Theological Trends in the Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions". Archived from the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2008...."Bhakti, the highest path, was that of surrender to Lord Krishna, the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".
  123. ^ a b Matchett (2000), p. 4.
  124. ^
    S2CID 164194548
    .
  125. ^ See McDaniel, June, "Folk Vaishnavism and Ṭhākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues" in Beck 2005, p. 39
  126. ^ Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.
  127. ^ Bhagawan Swaminarayan bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981. p. 154: ...Shri Vallabhacharya [and] Shri Swaminarayan... Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotieon (Nirguna Bhakti), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154, Sahajānanda, Vedanta. 1981
  128. ^
    ISBN 978-0-231-12256-6. Retrieved 12 April 2008. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  129. ^ a b Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.
  130. ^ (Gupta 2007, p.36 note 9)
  131. ^ a b Kennedy, M.T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press.
  132. . Retrieved 21 April 2008. gavin flood."Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagavatas, while Narayana was worshipped by the Pancaratra sect."
  133. ISBN 978-0-521-41311-4. Retrieved 12 April 2008. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  134. .
  135. .
  136. ^ "Sapthagiri". tirumala.org. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2008. Parashara Maharishi,
    Parasara Maharishi ends up Amsa 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (Vishnu Purana
    .5.38.94)
  137. .
  138. ^ Matchett (2000), pp. 4, 77, 200.
  139. S2CID 162224010
    .

Bibliography

External links