Hinduism
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Hinduism (
Hinduism entails diverse systems of thought, marked by a range of shared concepts that discuss theology, mythology, among other topics, in textual sources.[3] The major Hindu denominations are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and the Smarta tradition. The six Āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas, are: Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā, and Vedānta.[4][5] Hindu texts have been classified into Śruti ("heard") and Smṛti ("remembered"). The major Hindu scriptures are the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Purānas, the Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyana, and the Āgamas.[6][7] Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include karma (action, intent and consequences)[6][8] and the four Puruṣārthas, proper goals or aims of human life, namely: dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions) and moksha (liberation/freedom from the passions and the cycle of death and rebirth).[9][10] Hindu religious practices include devotion (bhakti), worship (puja), sacrificial rites (yajña), and meditation (dhyāna) and yoga.[11]
While the
Hinduism is the
Etymology
The word Hindū is an
The
Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by
Definitions
"Hinduism" is an umbrella-term,
Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions; Hindus can be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.[53][54] According to Mahatma Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu".[55] According to Wendy Doniger, "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste – are subjects of debate, not dogma."[43]
Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.[24] The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it".[56] Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life".[57][note 1] From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the Western term "religion".[58]
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.[59][60] Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism,[59][note 15] and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.[61][note 16]
Typology
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six
The sixClassified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are
June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus.
Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.
Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytising missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests.[74] Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project.[74] From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of Indology. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.[74]
Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.[75]
Sanātana Dharma
To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life.
Sanātana Dharma refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and tradition with origins beyond human history, truths divinely revealed (
Sanātana Dharma historically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahiṃsā), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with svadharma, one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (varṇa) and stage in life (puruṣārtha).[web 5] In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian".[web 5]
Vaidika dharma
Some have referred to Hinduism as the Vaidika dharma.[92] The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'.[web 6] Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism.[93][94] According to Arvind Sharma, the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term vaidika dharma or a variant thereof" by the 4th-century CE.[95] According to Brian K. Smith, "[i]t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term Vaidika Dharma cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'."[96]
Whatever the case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedic
According to
The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner.[90] The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious" or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term.[90] To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their [Hindus] whole life's orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it".[90]
Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu,"[98][note 18] and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."[99] Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.[90]
Legal definition
Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave the following definition in Gita Rahasya (1915): "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large".[100][101] It was quoted by the Indian Supreme Court in 1966,[100][101] and again in 1995, "as an 'adequate and satisfactory definition,"[102] and is, according to Doniger, "the still operative legal definition of a Hindu."[103]
Diversity and unity
Diversity
Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion.[web 10] Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts.[web 11][104][105][106][web 12] Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed",[24] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.[107][108] According to the Supreme Court of India,
Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".[109]
Part of the problem with a single definition of the term Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.[110] It is a synthesis of various traditions,[111] the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".[112]
Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or have been atheists.[113]
Sense of unity
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.
Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",[114] there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"[114] of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".[114]
Classical Hinduism
Medieval developments
The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE.[123] Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion.[124] Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other".[125] According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other"[125] is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.[126]
According to the Indologist
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy."[127] The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Mikel Burley.[128] Hacker called this "inclusivism"[115] and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit".[3] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[129] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[130][29] which started well before 1800.[131] Michaels notes:
As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism ... [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.[132]
Colonial views
The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"[133] was also popularised by 19th-century proselytising missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism.[133][74][134] These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils,[note 19] while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature".[136][note 20] Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention.[137] He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.[137][note 21]
Hindu modernism and neo-Vedanta
All of religion is contained in the Vedanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedanta philosophy, the Dvaita, Vishishtâdvaita and Advaita; one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion: the Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism.
This inclusivism[146] was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta,[147] and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.[115]
Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation,
Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the
This "Global Hinduism"[155] has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries[155] and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism",[155] both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.[155] It emphasises universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity".[155] It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation",[156] or the pizza effect,[156] in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.[156] This globalisation of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin".[157]
Modern India and the world
The
Main traditions
Denominations
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.[166] Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: Shaivism, Shaktism, Smartism, and Vaishnavism.[63][64][65][66] These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook.[167] The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".[168]
There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.[169] Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%.[170][171] In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.[172][note 23]
Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu[note 24] and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.[174] The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" Krishna and other Vishnu avatars.[167] These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.[175] Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism.[176] The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.[177]
Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.[167] Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga.[178][175] Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasise yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.[179] Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualise god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva.[178] Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela.[180] Shaivism has been more commonly practised in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.[181]
Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother,[167] and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognise Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices.[182] Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.[183]
Ethnicities
Hinduism is traditionally a multi- or polyethnic religion. On the Indian subcontinent, it is widespread among many Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and other South Asian ethnic groups,[191] for example, the Meitei people (Tibeto-Burman ethnicity in the northeastern Indian state Manipur).[192]
In addition, in antiquity and the Middle Ages, Hinduism was the state religion in many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, the Greater India – from Afghanistan (Kabul) in the West and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the East (Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, partly Philippines) – and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam,[193][194] except several still Hindu minor Austronesian ethnic groups, such as the Balinese[18] and Tenggerese people[195] in Indonesia, and the Chams in Vietnam.[196] Also, a small community of the Afghan Pashtuns who migrated to India after partition remain committed to Hinduism.[197]
The Indo-Aryan
There are many new ethnic Ghanaian Hindus in Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works of Swami Ghanananda Saraswati and Hindu Monastery of Africa[200] From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), Swami Vivekananda, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples.[201]
Scriptures
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two:
Hindu scriptures were composed, memorised and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down.[203][204] Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.[citation needed]
Shruti (lit. that which is heard)
The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions.
The most notable of the Smritis ("remembered") are the Hindu epics and the
Since the 19th-century Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements[148] and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.[222][223]
Tantra are the religious scriptures which give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form. In Tantric tradition, Radha, Parvati, Durga and Kali are worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms.[224] The Agamas in Tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti,[225] while Nigamas refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva.[225] In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.[226][227]
Beliefs
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to)
Purusharthas
Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas – Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.[9][235]
Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics)
Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.
Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.
In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word Sanātana means eternal, perennial, or forever; thus, Sanātana Dharma signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.[242]
Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life)
Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, assets, or livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligations, economic prosperity, and to have a fulfilling life. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.[243] The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.[244][245]
A central premise of Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled. A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available. Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.[246]
Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure)
Kāma (Sanskrit,
In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts. The ancient Indian Epic the Mahabharata describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).[249]
In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.[250]
Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering)
Moksha (
Due to the belief in Hinduism that the
Differing views on the nature of moksha
The meaning of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.
Advaita Vedanta holds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence, or self, to be pure consciousness or the witness-consciousness and identifies it as identical to Brahman.[255][256]
The followers of
More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.[257][255][258][259][256]
According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".[257][255][259] Moksha when viewed as a psychological concept, suggests Klaus Klostermaier,[256] implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense. This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.[256]
Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, the Vedantic school separates this into two views – Jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and Videhamukti (liberation after death).[256][260][261]
Karma and saṃsāra
Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed,
Concept of God
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs;[53][279][web 15] its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralisation.[280][281]
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
The
Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true "Self" of every person, is called the
Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualised as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances.
The
The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature,[309] but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE.[310] Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the avatars of Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other deities.[311] Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the Garuda Purana and the twenty-two avatars in the Bhagavata Purana, though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.[312] The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition, avatars of the Devi are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical Brahman[313] and Shakti (energy).[314][315] While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.[316]
Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early
God in Hinduism is often represented having both the feminine and masculine aspects. The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati (Ardhanarishvara), Vishnu accompanied by Lakshmi, Radha with Krishna and Sita with Rama.[329]
According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.[330] The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.[331]
Authority
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism.[332] Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars.[332] But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through [...] an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason."[332] Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning persons of authority.[332] The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks kena, 'by what' power something is the case.[332] The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticises the teacher's inferior answers.[332] In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma.[332] Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata.[332] Jayadeva's Gita Govinda presents criticism via Radha.[332]
Practices
Rituals
Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.[334] The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.[335]
Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding.[336] Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.[web 17]
The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"[337] and "do not constitute linguistic utterances."[338] Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become magical sounds, "means to an end."[note 29] In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.[338] By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the mantras will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."[338][321]
Sādhanā
Sādhanā is derived from the root "sādh-", meaning "to accomplish", and denotes a means for the realisation of spiritual goals. Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own particular notions of sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from bondage. They differ on what causes bondage, how one can become free of that bondage, and who or what can lead one on that path.[339][340]
Life-cycle rites of passage
Major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara (saṃskāra,
The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include
Bhakti (worship)
Bhakti refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.[web 18][350] Bhakti-marga is considered in Hinduism to be one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha.[351] The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are Jnana-marga (path of knowledge), Karma-marga (path of works), Rāja-marga (path of contemplation and meditation).[352][353]
Bhakti is practised in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine,[354] or in a temple before a murti or sacred image of a deity.[355][356] Hindu temples and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism.[357] While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.[357]
One form of daily worship is aarti, or "supplication", a ritual in which a flame is offered and "accompanied by a song of praise".
Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarti,
Festivals
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma.[374][375] Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon (Holi) or the new moon (Diwali), often with seasonal changes.[376] Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as Holi and Diwali are pan-Hindu.[376][377] The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the sister-brother bond over the Raksha Bandhan (or
Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:
- Ashadhi Ekadashi
- Bonalu
- Chhath
- Dashain
- Deepawali
- Durga Puja
- Dussehra
- Ganesh Chaturthi
- Gowri Habba
- Gudi Padwa
- Holi
- Karva Chauth
- Kartika Purnima
- Krishna Janmashtami
- Maha Shivaratri
- Makar Sankranti
- Navaratri
- Onam
- Pongal
- Radhashtami
- Raksha Bandhan
- Rama Navami
- Ratha Yatra
- Sharad Purnima
- Shigmo
- Thaipusam
- Ugadi
- Vasant Panchami
- Vishu
Pilgrimage
Many adherents undertake pilgrimages, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today.[380] Pilgrimage sites are called Tirtha, Kshetra, Gopitha or Mahalaya.[381][382] The process or journey associated with Tirtha is called Tirtha-yatra.[383] According to the Hindu text Skanda Purana, Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a sadhu, a rishi, a guru; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, Self.[384][385] Tīrtha-yatra is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.[386][387]
Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the
Some pilgrimages are part of a Vrata (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons.
Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by travelling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges.[404][405][406] Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition.[407][408] The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts.[409] The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from travelling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.[410]
Culture
The term "
Architecture
Hindu architecture is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described in Hindu texts.[411][412] The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include the Vastu shastras, Shilpa Shastras, the Brihat Samhita, architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the Manasara among others.[413][414]
By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are Hindu temples, with an architectural tradition that has left surviving examples in stone, brick, and rock-cut architecture dating back to the Gupta Empire. These architectures had influence of Ancient Persian and Hellenistic architecture.[415] Far fewer secular Hindu architecture have survived into the modern era, such as palaces, homes and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in India.[416]
Studies on Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture particularly of the northern and western India given their relative abundance. In other regions of India, particularly the South, Hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th-century, such as those exemplified by the temples, ruined cities and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayakas.[417][418] The secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in India, and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the Hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones. Further, states Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found.[419]Art
Hindu art encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.
Calendar
The Hindu calendar, Panchanga (
The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the Hebrew calendar, the Chinese calendar, and the Babylonian calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar.[423] Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days)[424] and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.[423][421]
The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the
The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as Ekadashi.[429]
Person and society
Varnas
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called varṇas. They are the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors and kings; the Vaishyas: farmers and merchants; and the Shudras: servants and labourers.[430] The Bhagavad Gītā links the varṇa to an individual's duty (svadharma), inborn nature (svabhāva), and natural tendencies (guṇa).[431] The Manusmriti categorises the different castes.[web 21] Some mobility and flexibility within the varṇas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists,[432][433] although some other scholars disagree.[434] Scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.[435][web 22][note 31] And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime.[436]
A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varṇatita or "beyond all varṇas" in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varṇas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.[437]
Yoga
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that
Symbolism
Hinduism has a developed system of
Ahiṃsā and food customs
Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (nonviolence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.[447] The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads,[448] the epic Mahabharata[449] and ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.[450]
In accordance with
Some Hindus such as those belonging to the
Institutions
Temple
A
Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs.
Many temples feature one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (darsana, a sight) in a Hindu temple.[486] In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa (Brahman), the universal essence.[478]
Asrama
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery). Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life.[488] Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.[489] Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.[490][491] The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.[492][493]
The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism.
Monasticism
Some Hindus choose to live a
History
Hinduism's varied history[8] overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis[498][13] of various Indian cultures and traditions,[13][112][498] with diverse roots[51] and no single founder.[499][note 32]
The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE.[503][note 33] The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions",[506] and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320–650 CE), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period[3] or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.[507]
Hinduism under both Hindu and
Although religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial and debated subject in India, Nepal,
Demographics
Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 80% of the country's population of 1.21 billion (
Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:
- Nepal – 81.3%[538]
- India – 80.0%[539]
- Mauritius – 48.5%[540]
- Guyana – 31%[541]
- Fiji – 27.9%[542]
- Trinidad and Tobago – 24.3%[543]
- Bhutan – 22.6%[544]
- Suriname – 22.3%[545]
- Qatar – 15.9%[546]
- Sri Lanka – 12.6%[547]
- Bahrain – 9.8%[548]
- Bangladesh – 7.5%[549]
- Réunion – 6.8%[note 35]
- United Arab Emirates – 6.6%[550]
- Malaysia – 6.3%[551]
- Kuwait – 6%[552]
- Oman – 5.5%[553]
- Seychelles – 5.4% [554]
- Singapore – 5%[555]
- Indonesia – 3.86%[556]
- Australia – 2.7%[557]
- New Zealand – 2.62%[558]
- Pakistan – 2.14%[559]
Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.[560][561]
Tradition | Followers | % of the Hindu population | % of the world population | Follower dynamics | World dynamics |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vaishnavism | 640,806,845 | 67.6 | 9.3 | Growing | Growing |
Shaivism | 252,200,000 | 26.6 | 3.7 | Growing | Growing |
Shaktism | 30,000,000 | 3.2 | 0.4 | Stable | Declining |
Neo-Hinduism | 20,300,000 | 2.1 | 0.3 | Growing | Growing |
Reform Hinduism | 5,200,000 | 0.5 | 0.1 | Growing | Growing |
Cumulative | 948,575,000 | 100 | 13.8 | Growing | Growing |
See also
- Hinduism
- Related systems and religions
- Adivasi religion
- Ayyavazhi
- Bathouism
- Donyi-Polo
- Dravidian folk religion
- Eastern religions
- Eastern philosophy
- Gurung shamanism
- Bon
- Hinduism and other religions
- Indian religions
- Kalash religion
- Kiratism
- Sarna sthal
- Manichaeism
- Peterburgian Vedism
- Proto-Indo-European religion
- Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
- Hinduism and science
- Sanamahism
- Sarnaism
- Sikhism
- Tribal religions in India
- Zoroastrianism
- Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization
- Ancient Iranian religion
Notes
- ^ a b Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" (Sharma 2003, pp. 12–13) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Flood 2003, pp. 1–17
- ^ There is no single-word translation for dharma in Western languages.(Widgery 1930)(Rocher 2003)
The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Dharma, defines dharma as follows: "the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order." See Dharma (righteousness, ethics). - ^ a b There are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion:
- Flood 1996, p. 6 states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain, or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century."
- , pp. 321–324.
- Sharma 2002 also mentions the use of the word Hindu in Islamic texts such as those relating to the 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text Tarikh Al-Hind, and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term Hindu retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".
- Lorenzen 2006 states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, Futuhu's-Salatin, composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".(Lorenzen 2006, p. 33)
- Lorenzen 2006, pp. 32–33 also mentions other non-Persian texts such as Prithvíráj Ráso by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.
- Lorenzen 2006, p. 15 states that one of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.
- ^ See:
- Fowler 1997, p. 1: "probably the oldest religion in the world."
- Klostermaier 2007, p. 1: The "oldest living major religion" in the world.
- Kurien 2006: "There are almost a billion Hindus living on Earth. They practice the world's oldest religion..."
- Bakker 1997: "it [Hinduism] is the oldest religion".
- Noble 1998: "Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."
Animism has also been called "the oldest religion."(Sponsel 2012: "Animism is by far the oldest religion in the world. Its antiquity seems to go back at least as far as the period of the Neanderthals some 60,000 to 80,000 years ago.")
AustralianAboriginal myths regarding the origin of the Crater Lakes might be dated as accurate back to 10,000 years ago.(Dixon 1996)
See also:- Ancestor worshipfor some of the oldest forms of religion
- Sarnaism and Sanamahism, Indian Tribal religions connected to the earliest migrations into India
- ^ Santana dharma:
- Harvey 2001, p. xiii: "In modern Indian usage, sanātana dharma is often equated with 'Hinduism' as a name, stressing the eternal foundation of it."
- Knott 1998, p. 5: "Many describe Hinduism as sanatana dharma, the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history.";
- Knott 1998, p. 117: " The phrase sanatana dharma, eternal tradition, used often by Hindus to describe their religion, implies antiquity, but its usage is modern."
- Parpola 2015, p. 3: "Some Indians object to having a foreign term for their religion, preferring the Sanskrit expression sanātana dharma, "eternal law or truth," despite the fact that this expression was not applied to any religious system in ancient texts."
- ^ a b Lockard 2007, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."
Lockard 2007, p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries." - ^ a b Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)."
- ^ See:
- Samuel 2008, p. 194: "The Brahmanical pattern"
- Flood 1996, p. 16: "The tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative'"
- Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12: "Brahmanical synthesis"
- ^ a b See also:
- Ghurye 1980, pp. 3–4: "He [J. H. Hutton, the Commissioner of the Census of 1931] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. 'The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism'."
- Zimmer 1951, pp. 218–219.
- Sjoberg 1990, p. 43. Quote: [Tyler (1973). India: An Anthropological Perspective. p. 68.]; "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."
- Sjoberg 1990.
- Flood 1996, p. 16: "Contemporary Hinduism cannot be traced to a common origin [...] The many traditions which feed into contemporary Hinduism can be subsumed under three broad headings: the tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions. The tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative', transmitting a body of knowledge and behaviour through time, and defining the conditions of orthopraxy, such as adherence to varnasramadharma."
- Nath 2001.
- Werner 1998.
- Werner 2005, pp. 8–9.
- Lockard 2007, p. 50.
- Hiltebeitel 2002.
- Hopfe & Woodward 2008, p. 79: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
- Samuel 2010.
- ^ Indus Valley civilisation (Narayanan 2009, p. 11; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 3; Jones & Ryan 2007, p. xviii) the śramaṇa or renouncer traditions of northeastern India (Flood 1996, p. 16; Gomez 2013, p. 42), with possible roots in a non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture (Bronkhorst 2007); and "popular or local traditions" (Flood 1996, p. 16) and prehistoric cultures "that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence."Doniger 2010, p. 66)
- ^ The Indo-Aryan word Sindhu means "river", "ocean".[27] It is frequently being used in the Rigveda. The Sindhu-area is part of Āryāvarta, "the land of the Aryans".
- ^ In the contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practising or non-practicing or Laissez-faire.[37] The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as Sarnaism.[38] The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states Julius Lipner, to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.[39]
- ^ In D. N. Jha's essay Looking for a Hindu identity, he writes: "No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century" and "Hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity."[35] He further wrote "The British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, [and] reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism."[44]
- ^ Hinduism is derived from Persian hindu- and the -ism suffix. It is first recorded in 1786, in the generic sense of "polytheism of India".[web 4]
- ^ Sweetman mentions:
- Halbfass 1988, India and Europe
- Sontheimer 1989, Hinduism Reconsidered
- Ronald Inden, Imagining India
- Carol Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer, Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament
- Vasudha Dalmia and Heinrich von Stietencron, Representing Hinduism
- S.N. Balagangadhara, The Heathen in his Blindness...
- Thomas Trautmann, Aryans and British India
- King 1999, Orientalism and religion
- ^ See Rajiv Malhotra and Being Different for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, Invading the Sacred, and Hindu studies.
- ^ The term sanatana dharma and its Vedic roots had another context in the colonial era, particularly the early 19th-century through movements such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj. These movements, particularly active in British and French colonies outside India, such as in Africa and the Caribbean, interpreted Hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that it to be similar to Christianity and Islam. Their views were opposed by other Hindus such as the Sanatan Dharma Sabha of 1895.[91]
- ^ Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), The sacred tread, p. 5.
- ^ Pennington[135] describes the circumstances in which early impressions of Hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries: "Missionary reports from India also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and British rulers often resented their presence. Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings [impoverished, famine-prone Bengal – now West Bengal and Bangladesh]. Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils."
- ^ Sweetman (2004, p. 13) identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, an agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism, even if the degree of this influence is debated":
- The wish of European Orientalists "to establish a textual basis for Hinduism", akin to the Protestant culture,(Sweetman 2004, p. 13) which was also driven by preference among the colonial powers for "written authority" rather than "oral authority".(Sweetman 2004, p. 13)
- The influence of Brahmins on European conceptions of Hinduism.(Sweetman 2004, p. 13)
- [T]he identification of Vedanta, more specifically Advaita Vedanta, as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'.(Sweetman 2004, p. 13) (Sweetman cites King 1999, p. 128.) Several factors led to the favouring of Vedanta as the "central philosophy of the Hindus":(Sweetman 2004, pp. 13–14)
- According to Niranjan Dhar's theory that Vedanta was favoured because British feared French influence, especially the impact of the French Revolution; and Ronald Inden's theory that Advaita Vedanta was portrayed as 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of Hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life-negating.(Sweetman 2004, pp. 13–14)
- "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".(Sweetman 2004, p. 14)
- The colonial constructions of caste as being part of Hinduism.(Sweetman 2004, pp. 14–16) According to Nicholas Dirks' theory that, "Caste was refigured as a religious system, organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action. (Sweetman cites Dirks 2001, p. xxvii.)
- "[T]he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity"(Sweetman 2004, p. 15)
- Anti-colonial Hindus(Sweetman 2004, pp. 15–16) "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a pre-colonial, national identity".(Sweetman 2004, p. 15) (Sweetman cites Viswanathan 2003, p. 26.)
- ^ Many scholars have presented pre-colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient Hindu textual sources in medieval and pre-colonial times:
- Klaus Witz[138] states that Hindu Bhakti movement ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.
- John Henderson[139] states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognised attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta.
- Patrick Olivelle[140] and others[141][142][143] state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.
- ^
- In western nations, the growth of Hinduism has been very fast and is the second fastest growing religion in Europe, after Islam.[165]
- ^ According to Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 474, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."[172][dubious ]
- ^ sometimes with Lakshmi, the spouse of Vishnu; or, as Narayana and Sri;[173]
- ^ Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts.
- Smṛti (Dharmaśāstras, Puranas), Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara (conduct of noble people) and finally Ātma tuṣṭi(Self satisfaction). From the sloka:
- वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥[web 14]
- vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanah
etaccaturvidham prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam - – Bhavishya Purāṇa, Brahmaparva, Adhyāya 7
- ^ For translation of deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 492. For translation of devatā as "godhead, divinity", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 495.
- ^ Among some regional Hindus, such as Rajputs, these are called Kuldevis or Kuldevata.[307]
- ^ Klostermaier: "Brahman, derived from the root bŗh = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified speech-act" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." Klostermaier 2007, p. 55 quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds, p.4.
- ^ The cremation ashes are called phool (flowers). These are collected from the pyre in a rite-of-passage called asthi sanchayana, then dispersed during asthi visarjana. This signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living. Tirtha locations offer these services.[402][403]
- ^ Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of Hindu sacred texts that divinity is inherent in all beings."[web 23]
- ^ Among its roots are the Vedic religion[112] of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,[500] but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,[51][501][17] the śramaṇa[502] or renouncer traditions[112] of east India,[502] and "popular or local traditions".[112]
- ^ There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.[504] Flood mentions 1500 BCE.[505]
- ^ According to Sharma, the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.[524]
- ^ Réunion is not a country, but an independent French terretory.
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... in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.
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There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition
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Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism.
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Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals.
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Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection.
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An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey (NSS) shows that 42 percent of households are vegetarian, in that they never eat fish, meat or eggs. The remaining 58 percent of households are less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.
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Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.
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{{cite web}}
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Further reading
- Encyclopedias
- ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
- ISBN 978-9004271289.
- Vol. 1: Regions, Pilgrimage, Deities (2009).
- Vol. 2: Sacred Languages, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts (2010).
- Vol. 3: Society, Religious Professionals, Religious Communities, Philosophies (2011).
- Vol. 4: Historical Perspectives, Poets/Teachers/Saints, Relation to Other Religions and Traditions, Hinduism and Contemporary Issues (2012).
- Vol. 5: Symbolism, Diaspora, Modern Groups and Teachers (2013).
- Vol. 6: Indices (2015).
- ISBN 978-94-024-1036-5.
- Johnson, W. J. (2009). A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0.
- Jones, Constance A.; Ryan, James D. (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9. Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-672-2.
- Potter, Karl H., ed. (1970–2019). Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers. Vol. 1–25. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Ongoing monographic series project.
- Sullivan, Bruce M. (2001). The A to Z of Hinduism (Rev. ed.). Lanham, Md; London: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-4070-7.
- ISBN 0-7007-1049-3.
- Introductory
- ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2016.
- ISBN 0-631-21535-2. Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2016.
- Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. ]
- ISBN 0-7007-1762-5.
- ISBN 978-1-78074-026-3. Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2020.
- Knott, Kim (1998). Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-160645-8. Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2020.
- History
- Chattopadhyaya, D. P. (ed.). History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. 1–15. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
- The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before the Coming of the Muslims. London: Sidgwick & Jackson.
- ISBN 978-0-19-022693-0.
- Samuel, Geoffrey (2010). The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge University Press.
- Philosophy and theology
- Dasgupta, Surendranath (1922–1955). A History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1–5. London: Cambridge University Press. Vol. 1 | Vol. 2 | Vol. 3 | Vol. 4 | Vol. 5.
- Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923–1927). Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1–2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Texts
- ISBN 978-0-7914-8011-3.
- Richards, Glyn, ed. (1985). A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism. Surrey: Curzon Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-0173-5.
External links
- Hinduism at Curlie