Hindustani etymology
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Hindustani, also known as Hindi-Urdu, is the vernacular form of two standardized registers used as official languages in India and Pakistan, namely Hindi and Urdu. It comprises several closely related dialects in the northern, central and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent but is mainly based on Khariboli of the Delhi region. As an Indo-Aryan language, Hindustani has a core base that traces back to Sanskrit but as a widely-spoken lingua franca, it has a large lexicon of loanwords,[1][2] acquired through centuries of foreign rule and ethnic diversity.
Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from Sanskrit while standard Urdu derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from
Hindustani developed over several centuries throughout much of the northern subcontinent including the areas that comprise modern-day India, Pakistan, and Nepal. In the same way that the core vocabulary of English evolved from Old English (Anglo-Saxon) but assimilated many words borrowed from French and other languages (whose pronunciations often changed naturally so as to become easier for speakers of English to pronounce), what may be called Hindustani can be said to have evolved from Sanskrit while borrowing many Persian and Arabic words over the years, and changing the pronunciations (and often even the meanings) of these words to make them easier for Hindustani speakers to pronounce. Many Persian words entered the Hindustani lexicon due to the influence of the
Categorization
Hindustani words, apart from loans, basically derive from two linguistic categories:
- Indo-Aryan (words classified by grammarians as
- Non-Indo-Aryan (words classified by grammarians as deśaja, or "indigenous"): Tibeto-Burman languages[3]
According to the traditional categorization in Hindi (also found in other Indo-Aryan languages except Urdu) the loanwords are classed as
The most common words in Hindustani are tadbhavas.[citation needed]
Examples of derivations
Second person pronouns
In Hindustani, the pronoun āp (आप آپ) "[one]self", originally used as a third person honorific plural, denotes respect or formality (politeness) and originates from Prakrit 𑀅𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀸 appā, which derived from Sanskrit ātman,[6] which refers to the higher self or level of consciousness.
The pronoun tū (तू تُو) and its grammatically plural form tum (तुम تم) (also the second person honorific plural) denote informality, familiarity or intimacy and originate respectively from tuhuṃ and tumma from Prakrit 𑀢𑀼𑀁 tuṃ and its variant 𑀢𑀼𑀫𑀁 tumaṃ, which derived from Sanskrit tvam, nominative singular of युष्मद् yuṣmad (the base of the second person plural pronoun).[7][8] In modern usage, tū is widely used to display a range of attitudes depending on the context, from extreme informality (impoliteness) to extreme intimacy to outright disrespect and even extreme reverence. Usage of tū in most contexts is considered highly offensive in the formal register except when addressing God as a display of spiritual intimacy. This is very similar to the usage of "thou" in archaic English and many other Indo-European languages showing T–V distinction.
Present "be" verb
One of the most common words in Hindustani, the copula hai (है ہے) and its plural form haiṉ (हैं ہیں) − present forms of honā (होना ہونا, meaning "to be" and originating from Prakrit 𑀪𑁄𑀤𑀺 bhodi derived from Sanskrit bhavati "to happen")[9] − rather originate from the following developments:[10]
- Sanskrit asti ("to be"; root as) evolves into Prakrit 𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺 atthi, which further develops into ahi
- Ahi evolves into Old Hindi ahai (अहै اہَے; pronounced /əɦəɪ/, not /əɦɛː/ as in Hindustani)
Shortening of ahai occurred in Hindustani resulting in hai probably to fulfill the symmetry of the other grammatical forms of honā. Ahai can be found in some older works of Hindustani literature and its evidence can also be seen in other closely related Indo-Aryan languages such as Marathi (आहे āhe) or Sindhi (آهي āhe).
Perfective "go" verb
The verb jānā (जाना جانا, "to go"), which originates from Prakrit 𑀚𑀸𑀤𑀺 jādi derived from Sanskrit yāti ("to move"; root yā),[10] however has its perfective form originating from another Prakrit word 𑀕𑀬 gaya derived from Sanskrit gata, past participle of gacchati ("to go"; root gam or gacch),[10] for example, in gayā (गया گیا, "went, gone").
Some other words
The word ājā (आजा آجا) has also been used in
The word dādā (दादा دادا) also has a similar meaning which varies by region. It is used in some regions for "father", in other regions for "older brother", or even for "grandfather" in other regions. This word is an amalgam of two sources:
- Sanskrit tāta used to address intimate persons which means either "sir" or "dear". [citation needed]
- Tau meaning "father's older brother" is also derived from tāta. [citation needed]
The word baṛā (बड़ा بڑا "older, bigger, greater") is derived from the Sanskrit vridhha through Prakrit vaḍḍha.
Desi words
The term Desi words is used to describe the component of the lexicon in Indo-Aryan languages which is non-Indo-Aryan in origin, but native to other language families of the Indian subcontinent. Examples of Desi words in Hindustani include:[11][12] loṭā (लोटा لوٹا) "lota (water vessel)", kapās (कपास کپاس) "cotton", kauṛī (कौड़ी کَوڑی) "cowrie (shell money)", ṭhes (ठेस ٹھیس) "wound, injury", jhaṉḍā (झंडा جھنڈا) "flag", mukkā (मुक्का مُکا) "fist, punch", lakṛī (लकड़ी لکڑی) "wood", ṭharrā (ठर्रा ٹھرّا) "tharra (liquor)", čūhā (चूहा چُوہا) "mouse, rat", čūlhā (चूल्हा چُولہا) "stove, oven", pagṛī (पगड़ी پگڑی) "turban", luṉgī (लुंगी لنگی) "lungi (sarong)", ghoṭālā (घोटाला گھوٹالہ) "scam", dāṉḍī (दांडी دانڈی) "salt", jholā (झोला جھولا) "bag, satchel", ṭakkar (टक्कर ٹکر) "crash, collision, confrontation", kākā (काका کاکا) "paternal uncle", uṭpaṭāṉg/ūṭpaṭāṉg (उटपटांग/ऊट-पटांग اُوٹ پٹانگ/اُٹ پٹانگ) "ludicrous", ḍabbā/ḍibbā (डब्बा/डिब्बा ڈبہ) "box, container" and jhuggī (झुग्गी جُھگی) "hut"
Onomatopoeic words
Nouns: gaṛbaṛ (गड़बड़ گڑبڑ) "disorder, disturbance", dhaṛām (धड़ाम دھڑام) "thud", bakbak (बक-बक بک بک) "chatter/chitter-chatter", khusur pusar (खुसुर-पुसर کُھسر پُسر) "whisper", jhilmil (झिलमिल جِھلمِل) "shimmer", ṭhakṭhak (ठक-ठक ٹھک ٹھک) "knock knock", khaṭpaṭ (खटपट کھٹپٹ) "quarrel, disagreement"
Verbs: khaṭkhaṭānā (खटखटाना کھٹکھٹانا) "to knock", gaḍgaḍānā (गडगडाना گڈگڈانا) "to rumble, to fuss", jagmagānā (जगमगाना جگمگانا) "to shine/glitter", hinhinānā (हिनहिनाना ہِنہِنانا) "to neigh", phusphusānā (फुसफुसाना پُھسپُھسانا) "to whisper"
Adjectives and Adverbs: čaṭpaṭ (चट-पट چٹ پٹ) "in a jiffy", tharthar (थर-थर تھر تھر) "with jerky motion (characteristic of shaking or trembling)", čaṭpaṭā (चटपटा چٹپٹا) "dextrous, spicy", čipčipā (चिपचिपा چِپچِپا) "sticky, slimy", čiṛčiṛā (चिड़चिड़ा چِڑچِڑا) "irritable", gaṛbaṛiyā (गड़बड़िया گڑبڑیا) "chaotic, messy"
Loanwords
Due to the language's status as a lingua franca, Hindustani's vocabulary has a large inventory of loanwords, the largest number of which are adopted from
to a lesser extent.Classical Sanskrit
Phonetic alterations
Many Classical Sanskrit words which were not learned borrowings underwent phonetic alterations. In the vernacular form, these include the merger of Sanskrit श (śa) and ष (ṣa), ण (ṇa) and न (na) as well as ऋ (r̥) and रि (ri). Other common alterations were s͟h [/ʃ/] (श ش) becoming s [/s/] (स س), v/w [/ʋ/, /w/] (व و) becoming b [/b/] (ब ب) and y [/j/] (य ی) becoming j [/dʒ/] (ज ج). Short vowels were also sometimes introduced to break up consonant clusters. Such words in Hindi (and other Indo-Aryan languages except Urdu) are called ardhatatsam (
| Hindustani | Meaning | Sanskrit | Corresponding Persian loan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ardhatatsam | tatsam | |||
| baras (बरस برس) | varṣ (वर्ष) | year | वर्ष (varṣa) | sāl (साल سال), san (सन سَن) |
| des (देस دیس) | deśa (देश) | country | देश (deśa) | mulk (मुल्क مُلک), vatan (वतन وطن) |
| bāsī (बासी باسی) | vāsī (वासी) | inhabitant | वासी (vāsī) | bāśindā (बाशिन्दा باشندہ) |
| jantar (जन्तर جنتر) | yantra (यन्त्र) | device | यन्त्र (yantra) | ālā (आला آلہ) |
| rāt (रात رات) | rātri (रात्रि) | night | रात्रि (rātri) | śab (शब شب), lail (लैल لَیل) |
| ādhā (आधा آدھا) | ardh (अर्ध) | half | अर्ध (ardha) | nisf (निस्फ़ نِصف), nem (नेम نیم) |
| sūraj (सूरज سُورج) | sūrya (सूर्य) | sun | सूर्य (sūrya) | śams (शम्स شمس), āftāb (आफ़ताब آفتاب) |
| pūrā (पूरा پورا) | pūrṇ (पूर्ण) | complete | पूर्ण (pūrṇa) | tamām (तमाम تمام), mukammal (मुकम्मल مُکمّل) |
| ūncā/ūm̐cā (ऊंचा/ऊँचा اُونچا) | ucc (उच्च) | high/tall | उच्च (ucca) | buland (बुलन्द بُلند), aʾalā (आ'ला اعلیٰ) |
| kām (काम کام) | karm (कर्म) | action | कर्म (karma) | kār (कार کار) |
| nēm (नेम نیم) | niyam (नियम) | rule | नियम (niyama) | qāʾedā (क़ाएदा قاعدہ) |
| dakhin (दखिन دکِھن) | dakṣiṇa (दक्षिण) | south | दक्षिण (dakṣiṇa) | junūb (जुनूब جُنوب) |
| nain (नैन نَین) | nayan (नयन) | eye | नयन (nayana) | caśm (चश्म چشم) |
| lāj (लाज لاج) | lajjā (लज्जा) | shame | लज्जा (lajjā) | Śarm (शर्म شرم), hayā (हया حَیا) |
Classical Persian
Persian words which were not later artificially added were loaned from Classical Persian, the historical variety of the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries, which continued to be used as literary language and
Borrowings
Persian loanwords in Hindustani are mainly borrowed nouns and adjectives as well as adverbs and conjunctions and some other parts of speech.
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian | Corresponding Sanskrit loan |
|---|---|---|---|
| sāyā (साया سایہ) | shadow/shade | سایه (sāya) | čhāyā (छाया چھایا) |
| pares͟hān (परेशान پریشان) | anxious | پرِیشان (parēšān) | čintit (चिंतित چِنتِت) |
| hames͟hā (हमेशा ہميشہ) | always/forever | همِیشه (hamēša) | sadaiv (सदैव سدَیو), sadā (सदा سدا) |
| k͟hus͟hī (ख़ुशी خوشی) | happiness | خوشی (xušī) | ānand (आनंद آنند), sukh (सुख سُکھ) |
| sabzī (सब्ज़ी سبزی) | vegetable | سبزی (sabzī) | sāg (साग ساگ), s͟hāk (शाक شاک) |
| mehrbān (मेहरबान مہربان) | kind | مهربان (meherbān) | dayālu (दयालु دَیالو), karunāmaya (करुणामय کرُنامیَ) |
| agar (अगर اگر) | if | اگر (agar) | yadi (यदि یدی) |
| dīvār (दीवार دیوار) | wall | دیوار (dīwār) | bhīt (भीत بھیت) |
| darvāzā (दरवाज़ा دروازه) | door/gate | دروازه (darwāza) | dwār (द्वार دوار) |
| andar (अंदर اندر) | inside/in | اندر (andar) | bhītar (भीतर بھیتر) |
| tāzā (ताज़ा تازه) | fresh | تازه (tāza) | nirjar (निर्जर نِرجر), jarhīn (जरहीन جرہین) |
| roz (रोज़ روز) | day | رُوز (rōz) | din (दिन دِن), diwas (दिवस دِوس) |
| s͟hahr (शहर شہر) | city | شهر (šahr) | nagar (नगर نگر) |
| hind (हिंद ہِند) | India | هند (hind) | bhārat (भारत بھارت) |
| ki (कि کہ) | that (conjunction) | که (ki) | - |
| vāh (वाह واہ) | wow | واه (wāh) | - |
From stems:
Present:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| par (पर پر) | wing | پریدن (parīdan, "to fly") | paṉkh (पंख پنکھ) |
| pasand (पसंद پسند) | liked, liking | پسندیدن (pasandīdan, "to prefer") | čahit (चहित چہِت), čāhat (चाहत چاہت) |
| k͟hwāb/k͟hāb (ख़्वाब/ख़ाब خواب) | dream | خوابیدن (xābīdan, "to sleep") | sapnā (सपना سپنا), swapna (स्वप्न سوَپنہ) |
Past:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| āmad (आमद آمد) | arrival | آمدن (āmadan, "to come") | āgaman (आगमन آگمن) |
| s͟hikast (शिकस्त شِکست) | defeat, defeated | شکستن (šikastan, "to break") | parājay (पराजय پراجَی), parājit (पराजित پراجِت), hār (हार ہار) |
| giraft (गिरफ़्त گِرفت) | grip, gripped | گرفتن (giriftan, "to grab") | pakaṛ (पकड़ پکڑ), jabt (जब्त جبت) |
From participles:
Present:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| āyindā/āʾindā (आइन्दा آینده) | future | آمدن (āmadan, "to come") | bhaviṣya (भविष्य بھوِشیہ), āgāmī (आगामी آگامی) |
| parindā (परिन्दा پرِنده) | bird | پریدن (parīdan, "to fly") | pančhī (पंछी پنچھی), pakṣī (पक्षी پکشی) |
| zindā (ज़िन्दा زِنده) | living, alive | زیستن (zīstan, "to live") | jīvit (जीवित جیوِت), jīvant (जीवंत جیونت) |
Past:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| bastā (बस्ता بستہ) | bag, sack | بستن (bastan, "to bind") | thailā (थैला تھیلا) |
| pasandīdā (पसन्दीदा پسندیده) | favorite | پسندیدن (pasandīdan, "to prefer") | priya (प्रिय پریہ) |
| murdā (मुर्दा مُرده) | dead | مردن (murdan, "to die") | mr̥t (मृत مرت), hat (हत ہت) |
By adding noun suffix ـِش (-iš):
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| parvaris͟h (परवरिश پرورِش) | upbringing, rearing | پروردن (parwardan, "to foster") | pālanpoṣaṇ (पालन-पोषण پالن پوشن) |
| kos͟his͟h (कोशिश کوشِش) | effort, attempt | کوشیدن (kōšīdan, "to attempt") | prayās (प्रयास پریاس) |
| varzis͟h (वर्ज़िश ورزِش) | exercise | ورزیدن (warzīdan, "to exercise") | vyāyām (व्यायाम ویایام) |
| āzmāʾis͟h (आज़माइश آزمائش) | trial, test | آزمودن (āzmūdan, "to test") | vičāraṇ (विचारण وچارن), parīkṣaṇ (परीक्षण پریکشن) |
By forming composite words with Arabic:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian affix | Arabic element | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k͟hūbsūrat (ख़ूबसूरत خوبصورت) | beautiful | خوب (xūb, "good") | صورت (sūrat, "appearance") | sundar (सुंदर سُندر) |
| darasal (दरअसल دراصل) | actually | در (dar, "at, in") | اصل (asl, "reality") | vastutah (वस्तुत: وستُتہ), vastabik (वास्तबिक واستبِک) |
| fīsad (फ़ीसद فیصد) | percent | صد (sad, "hundred") | فی (fī, "in, at") | pratis͟hat (प्रतिशत پرتِشت), s͟hatansh (शतांश ستانش) |
| rahmdil (रहमदिल رحمدل) | compassionate | دل (dil, "heart") | رحم (rahm, "mercy") | kr̥pālū (कृपालु کرپالو), saday (सदय سدئے) |
Loaned Verbs
A substantial number of Hindustani verbs have been loaned from Punjabi,[13] however, verb stems originating in less closely related languages are relatively rare. There are a few common verbs formed directly out of Persian stems (or nouns in some cases) listed below.
| Hindustani verb | Verb meaning | Persian stem | Stem meaning | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k͟harīdnā (ख़रीदना خریدنا) | to buy | خرید (xarīd) - noun | buy, purchase | kray karnā (क्रय करना کرئے کرنا), mol lenā (मोल लेना مول لینا) |
| guzārnā (गुज़ारना گُذارنا) | to pass (transitive), to spend | گذار (guẕār) | letting | bitānā (बिताना بِتانا) |
| navāznā (नवाज़ना نوازنا) | to bestow, to patronize, to favor | نواز (nawāz) | playing, caressing | pradān karnā (प्रदान करना پرَدان کرنا), arpit karnā (अर्पित करना ارپِت کرنا), kr̥pā karnā (कृपा करना کرِپا کرنا), sahāyatā denā (सहायता देना سہایتا دینا) |
| guzarnā (गुज़रना گُذرنا) | to pass (intransitive), to occur | گذر (guẕar) | passing | bītnā (बीतना بِیتنا) |
| farmānā (फ़रमाना فرمانا) | to dictate, to say (formal) | فرما (farmā) | ordering, saying (formal) | āgyā karnā (आज्ञा करना آگیا کرنا), ādes͟h karnā (आदेश करना آدیش کرنا) |
| badalnā (बदलना بدلنا) | to change | بدل (badl) - noun | substitute, change | parivartan karnā (परिवर्तन करना پرِوَرتن کرنا), vinimay karnā (विनिमय करना وِنِمئے کرنا), palṭā denā (पलटा देना پلٹا دینا) |
| laraznā (लरज़ना لرزنا) | to tremble | لرز (laraz) | shivering | kāṉpnā (कांपना کانبنا) |
| guzrānnā (गुज़रानना گُذراننا) | to pass time, to present, to adduce | گذران (guẕarān) | passing time | prastut karnā (प्रस्तुत करना پرستُت کرنا), sāmne rakhnā (सामने रखना سامنے رکھنا) |
Arabic
Some of the most commonly used words from Arabic, all entering the language through Persian, include vaqt (वक़्त وقت) "time", qalam (क़लम قلم) "pen", kitāb (किताब کتاب) "book", qarīb (क़रीब قریب) "near", sahīh/sahī (सहीह/सही سہی/صحیح) "correct, right", g͟harīb (ग़रीब غریب) "poor", amīr (अमीर امیر) "rich", duniyā (दुनिया دنیا) "world", hisāb (हिसाब حساب) "calculation", qudrat (क़ुदरत قدرت) "nature", nasīb (नसीब نصیب) "fate, luck, fortune", ajīb (अजीब عجیب) "strange, unusual", qānūn (क़ानून قانون) "law", filhāl (फ़िलहाल فی الحال) "currently", sirf (सिर्फ़ صرف) "only, mere", taqrīban (तक़रीबन تقریبًا) "close to, about", k͟habar (ख़बर خبر) "news", ak͟hbār (अख़बार اخبار) "newspaper", qilā (क़िला قلعہ) "fort", kursī (कुर्सी کرسی) "chair, seat", s͟harbat (शर्बत شربت) "drink, beverage", muāf/māf (मुआफ़/माफ़ معاف) "forgiven, pardoned", zarūrī (ज़रूरी ضروری) "necessary", etc.[14]
Chagatai Turkic
There are a very small number of Turkic words in Hindustani, numbering as little as 24 according to some sources,[15] all entering the language through Persian. Other words attributed to Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language, are actually words which are common to Hindustani and Turkish but are of non-Turkic origins, mostly Perso-Arabic.[16] Both languages also share mutual loans from English. Most notably, some honorifics and surnames common in Hindustani are Turkic due to the influence of the ethnically Turkic Mughals - these include k͟hānam (ख़ानम خانم), bājī (बाजी باجی) "sister", and begam (बेगम بیگم). Common surnames include k͟hān (ख़ान خان), čug͟htāʾī (चुग़ताई چغتائی), pās͟hā (पाशा پاشا), and arsalān (अर्सलान ارسلان). Common Turkic words used in everyday Hindustani are qaiṉčī/qainčī (क़ैंची قینچی) "scissors", annā (अन्ना انّا) "governess", tamg͟hā (तमग़ा تمغا) "stamp, medal", and čaqmaq (चक़मक़ چقمق) "flint".
Mandarin Chinese
There are not many Chinese words that were loaned into Hindustani in spite of geographical proximity.
| Hindustani | Meaning | Chinese/Sinitic | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| čāy/čāʾe (चाय چائے/چاۓ) | tea | 茶 (chá) | Derived through Persian چای (čāy) |
| čīn (चीन چین) | China | 秦 (qín) | Derived through Sanskrit चीन (cīna) |
| līčī (लीची لِیچی) | lychee | 茘枝 (lìzhī) |
European languages
Portuguese
A small number of Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries. These include the following:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Portuguese |
|---|---|---|
| anannās/anānās (अनन्नास/अनानास اناناس/انناس) | pineapple | ananás |
| pādrī (पाद्री پادری) | priest | padre |
| bālṭī (बाल्टी بالٹی) | bucket | balde |
| čābī (चाबी چابی) | key | chave |
| girjā (गिर्जा گِرجا) | church | igreja |
| almārī (अलमारी الماری) | cupboard | armário |
| botal (बोतल بوتل) | bottle | botelha |
| aspatāl (अस्पताल اسپتال) | hospital | Hospital |
| olandez/valandez (ओलंदेज़/वलंदेज़ ولندیز/اولندیز) | Dutch | holandês |
French
A few French loans exist in Hindustani resulting from French colonial settlements in India. Other French words such as s͟hemīz (शेमीज़ شیمِیز) "chemise" and kūpan (कूपन کُوپن) "coupon" have entered the language through English.
| Hindustani | Meaning | French |
|---|---|---|
| kārtūs (कारतूस کارتُوس) | cartridge | cartouche |
| restorāṉ (रेस्तोरां/रेस्तोराँ ریستوراں) | restaurant | restaurant |
English
Loanwords from English were borrowed through interaction with the
Photo-semantic matching
Some loanwords from English undergo a significant phonetic transformation. This can either be done intentionally, in order to nativize words or to make them sound more or less "English-sounding", or happen naturally. Words often undergo a phonetic change in order to make them easier for native speakers to pronounce while others change due to a lack of English education or incomplete knowledge of English phonetics, where an alternate pronunciation becomes an accepted norm and overtakes the original as the most used pronunciation.
| Hindustani | English |
|---|---|
| darjan (दर्जन درجن)[17] | dozen |
| tijorī (तिजोरी تِجوری) | treasury |
| satalta (सतलता ستلتا) | subtlety |
| māčis (माचिस ماچِس) | match(es) |
| godām (गोदाम گودام) | godown |
| bigul (बिगुल بِگُل) | bugle |
| raṉgrūṭ (रंगरूट رنگرُوٹ) | recruit |
| ṭamāṭar (टमाटर ٹماٹر) | tomato |
| kābīnā (काबीना کابینہ) | cabinet |
| ketlī (केतली کیتلی) | kettle |
| darāz (दराज़ دراز) | drawer(s) |
| bam (बम بم) | bomb |
| lālṭen (लालटेन لالٹین) | lantern |
| būčaṛ (बूचड़ بُوچڑ) | butcher |
| ṭaṉkī (टंकी ٹنکی) | tank |
| baksā (बक्सा بکسا) | box |
| janvarī (जनवरी جنوری) | January |
References
- ^ "A Guide to Hindi". BBC - Languages - Hindi. BBC. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
- ^ Kumar, Nitin (28 June 2011). "Hindi & Its Origin". Hindi Language Blog. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
- ^ S2CID 161798254. at pp. 67-69.
- ^ [1]
- ^ Masica, p. 65
- ^ "aap". rekhta.org. Rekhta Foundation. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
- ^ "tum". rekhta.org. Rekhta Foundation. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
- ^ "tu". rekhta.org. Rekhta Foundation. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
- ^ Platts, John T. "هونا होना honā". A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English (Digital Dictionaries of South Asia). Retrieved 29 February 2020.
- ^ OCLC 458052227.
- ^ "Deshaj, Videshaj and Sankar Shabd Examples, Types and Definition". www.successcds.net. 28 May 2021.
- ^ "देशज, संकर और विदेशी शब्द". Hindi Gyan Ganga. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
- ^ Wikidata Q116167814
- ^ Platts, John T. "A قميص qamīṣ, vulg. qamīz, kamīj, s.m. A shirt; a shift; a chemise (cf. It. camicia; Port. camisa)". A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English. University of Chicago. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
- ^ Anwer, Syed Mohammed (13 November 2011). "Language: Urdu and the borrowed words". dawn.com.
- ^ Maldonado García, María Isabel; Yapici, Mustafa (2014). "Common Vocabulary in Urdu and Turkish Language: A Case of Historical Onomasiology" (PDF). Pakistan Vision. 15 (1): 194–225.
- arhoticBritish English
Sources
- Hindi Language and Literature, a site about Hindi's usage, dialects, and history by Dr. Yashwant K. Malaiya, Professor at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
- Hindi Language Resources A comprehensive site on the Hindi language built by Yashwant Malaiya
- Indian Department of Official Language
- Dua, Hans R. (1994a). Hindustani. In Asher (Ed.) (pp. 1554)
- Liberman, Anatoly. (2004). Word Origins ... and How We Know Them: Etymology for Everyone. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-561643-X.
- Rai, Amrit. (1984). A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-561643-X.
- Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2003). "Perso-Arabic Hybrids in Hindi. The Socio-linguistic and Structural Analysis". Delhi: Manohar. ISBN 81-7304-498-8.
- Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2008). "Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani. Part I: Dictionary". Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. ISBN 978-83-7188-161-9.
- Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2012). "Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani. Part II: Linguistic Study". Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. ISBN 978-83-7638-294-4.